CLASS-ROOM METHOD 
AND MANAGEMENT 



CLASS-ROOM METHOD 

AND MANAGEMENT 



By 
GEORGE HERBERT BETTS 



Author of 

The Mind and Its Education, The Recitation, and 

with Otis Hall, of Better Rural Schools, and 

with Oscar H. Benson, of Agriculture 



INDIANAPOLIS 

THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 



Copyright 1917 
The Bobbs-Merrill Company 



\$©*<? 



^sfc 




7 1917 



PRES9 OF 

BRAUNWORTH & CO. 

BOOK MANUFACTURERS 

BROOKLYN, N. Y. 



l CU4G2298 



PREFACE 

The many books now available on the teaching of various 
school subjects agree in two important particulars. First, 
each differs from all the others in everything that goes to 
make a book : in standpoint, mode of treatment, terms used, 
and practical outcome. No thread of unity leads their di- 
verse points of view to focalize on a common problem. 
Second, helpful as many of these texts are, no one of them 
undertakes any thoroughgoing organization of the central 
factors involved in a fundamental system of method. The 
result is that we have many "methods," but come perilously 
near having no method of teaching. 

The present work sets itself the rather ambitious task of 
seeking out and organizing the underlying principles that 
govern all good method. For method can be placed on a 
rational basis. In its broader aspects it rests on perfectly 
definite and simple principles. These principles can be 
clearly defined. They are easily grasped and may be intel- 
ligently applied to the teaching of any subject. Not con- 
tent with a theoretical statement of the general principles of 
method, the treatment carries them across to the work of the 
class room and applies them definitely and concretely to the 
teaching of the common-school subjects. 

Part I, which is devoted to general method, discusses the 
four cardinal elements which comprise method. These are 
(1) the determination of aim; (2) the selection of material; 
(3) the organisation of subject-matter for instruction; (4) 
presentation, or the technique of instruction. The first ques- 
tion that any teacher must ask is, what is my aim, what re- 
sults do I seek to accomplish in the mind and experience of 
the child through the subject I teach? The second question 
is, what material will best accomplish this aim? The next 



PREFACE 

is, how can I best organize this particular material to accom- 
plish the aim set up ? And finally, how through instruction 
can I best present this material to make it effective ? These 
are the four questions that must be answered for every sub- 
ject. They are the questions that underlie all rational 
method when broadly conceived. 

The aim of education, and hence or any subject in the 
curriculum, is to be defined in terms (1) of fruitful knowl- 
edge, (2) right attitudes, (3) applied skills. Hence the 
question for each subject becomes how to select, organize 
and present such material as will result in the desired knowl- 
edge, attitudes and skills. The answer to this problem for 
any particular subject constitutes its method. From this 
point of view method becomes very definite and concrete, 
and its application to school-room practise very immediate 
and specific. 

Part II builds on the foundations already laid and out- 
lines the method of the elementary subjects. In each case it 
asks the question (1) what is the aim of this branch — what 
fruitful knowledge, what helpful attitudes, what applied 
skills should it give the child; (2) what particular subject- 
matter must be used to accomplish these aims; (3) how 
shall I organize and teach this material to reach the desired 
aim. In answering these questions there has been an attempt 
to avoid mere dogmatism and to use the best current points 
of view in education. 

Part HI deals briefly with the problems of class-room 
management. Teaching implies control of the conditions 
under which instruction is given. Not to be a good manager 
is to defeat the best of teaching method. Good class-room 
management will supply favorable conditions (1) for teach- 
ing and learning, and (2) for promoting the development of 

character. 

G. H. B. 



CONTENTS 

PART ONE: FOUNDATION PRINCIPLES 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I Method in Education 1 

The importance of method — Is method possible — Its 
function — Method not yet standardized; hence many- 
conflicting methods — The process of standardizing 
method — Foundation principles — The new demand 
for better methods — Method and supervision — The 
functional view of method — The child and not the 
subject-matter to determine method — Logical and 
psychological method — Chapter summary — Questions 
and problems. 

II Method and the Point of View ....... 10 

Teacher's point of view central in determining 
method — Teaching the child versus teaching the sub- 
ject-matter — Each subject an instrument for effect- 
ing desired changes in the child; hence subject- 
matter a means and not an end — Making the student 
over into the teacher — Means change of emphasis 
from material to pupil — Method conceives child as 
primary and material as secondary — Chapter sum- 
mary — Questions and problems. 

III What Method Is . 19 

The nature of method — Its four factors — The part 
played by aim — Aim sets the goal and determines the 
material — The part played by material; must fit the 
aim — Technique of instruction to be adapted to aim 
— What determines the aim in education — Conflicting 
values — The newer definition of culture — Culture 
and utility — The efficiency aim — Three fundamental 
requirements of education : knowledge, attitude and 
skills — What knowledge is required by present-day 
needs — The place of attitudes in education — The 
place of skills — Chapter summary — Questions and 
problems. 

IV The Knowledge Side of Education 35 

What does the educated person of to-day need to 
know? — Tests of fruitful knowledge — Knowledge of 
tools or symbols — Knowledge of the self — Knowl- 
edge of physical nature — Knowledge of human na- 



CONTENTS— Continued 

CHAPTER PAGE 

ture — Knowledge of history — Knowledge of industry, 
science and invention — Knowledge of forms of ex- 
pression — Knowledge of avocations — Chapter sum- 
mary — Questions and problems. 

V Training to Right Attitudes 51 

Meaning of term — Attitude as important as knowl- 
edge — The outcome of attitude — Setting up stand- 
ards of Value — Cultivation of interests and tastes — 
Ideals of conduct and achievement — The cultivation 
of habits — Tastes and appreciations — How attitudes 
are developed — Relation to knowledge and achieve- 
ment — Chapter summary — Questions and problems. 

VI Developing Skills 67 

Meaning of the term — Applied skills the end of all 
education — How skills are obtained — Developing 
physical skills — Mental skills — Social skills — Skill in 
leadership— Moral skills — The developing of moral 
control — Standards of moral action — Chapter sum- 
mary — Questions and problems. 

VII The Subject-Matter of Education 79 

Present readjustment of subject-matter — New im- 
portance ascribed to kind of material studied — The 
breakdown of the disciplinary concept of education 
— Modern increase in material for the curriculum — 
Relieving the overcrowded curriculum — Directions 
taken by present-day reconstruction — Determining 
the material by the aim — The principle involved — 
Subject-matter determined by age, capacity and in- 
terest — Adapting material to the learner — Securing 
the point of contact in teaching — Elimination of the 
unfit from text-books — Selecting ' the material 
through stress and neglect — Chapter summary — 
Questions and problems. 

VIII The Organization of Subject-Matter 100 

The place of organization in method — Two types of 
organization — Fallacy involved in logical organiza- 
tion for children — Logical method dominates most 
older texts — The psychological organization of sub- 
ject-matter — This follows demands of the child in 
place of the subject-matter — The relation of organi- 
zation to attitude and motive — The order of subjects 
in the curriculum — The order of material within 
each subject — The organization of each day's lesson 
— Meeting-point of the logical and the psychological 
— Chapter summary — Questions and problems. 



CONTENTS-™ Continued 

CHAPTER PAGE 

IX The Technique of Instruction 113 

After aim, material and organization comes tech- 
nique — Factors depending on the teacher — The intel- 
lectual quality — The quality of human sympathy — 
The teacher's educational equipment — Commanding 
interest and attention — The influence of attitudes in 
the school room — Moral effects of cooperation — 
Making use of the inductive — The method of the 
recitation — The use of questions and answers — The 
art of good questioning — The topical method — The 
supplemental method — The laboratory method — 
Combining methods — Tests of a good recitation — 
Response as a test — The contagion of inattention 
— Eliminating distractions — Maintaining standards — 
Danger points in instruction — The quality of definite- 
ness — Avoiding dead levels — The rut of routine — 
Incomplete mastery — Chapter summary — Questions 
and problems. 



PART TWO: METHOD OF THE COMMON 
BRANCHES 

X Reading and Literature 132 

Reading the most important of school subjects — Re- 
sults sought — The knowledge aim — Attitudes to be 
cultivated — Skills to be trained — Standardized tests 
for determining skill — Skill in oral expression — 
What to teach as subject-matter — The content of 
elementary reading material — Adapting material to 
age and interest — First-grade reading material — 
Second-grade material — Third-grade material — 
Fourth-grade material — Fifth- and sixth-grade ma- 
terial — Seventh- and eighth-grade material — Starting 
the beginners— Prevention and cure of bad reading 
habits — Dramatization — Leading to appreciation and 
enjoyment — Appealing to imagination — Oral and si- 
lent reading — Reading for home work — Training the 
memory — Questions and problems — References. 

XI Spelling 165 

Unsatisfactory status of spelling — The spelling aim 
— Knowledge required in spelling — The cultivation 
of spelling attitudes — Skills to be attained — The 
Ayres spelling test — What shall we teach in spelling? 
— The one thousand commonest words — The one 
hundred spelling "demons" — What to omit in spell- 
ing — How to teach spelling — Teaching new words — 



CONTENTS— Continued 

CHAPTER PAGE 

Emphasizing hard words — Personal and class lists — 
Oral and written spelling — Column and context spell- 
ing — Drill in difficult elements — Spelling rules — Fu- 
tility of spelling contests — Questions and problems — 
References. 

XII Language 188 

Language as a measure of culture — Aims sought 
through language teaching — Knowledge required — 
Attitudes to be developed — Skills sought — Material 
for language instruction — Finding material in the 
child's activities — Use of stories and pictures — Let- 
ter-writing — The treatment of common errors — The 
place of grammar — First-grade material — Second- 
grade material — Third- and fourth-grade material — 
Fifth- and sixth-grade material — Seventh- and 
eighth-grade material — Securing expression through 
language teaching — Extending the vocabulary — The 
socialized recitation — Good speech clubs — Original 
expression — Questions and problems — References. 

XIII Arithmetic 217 

The traditional place of arithmetic — Its aim — Arith- 
metical knowledge required — Attitudes and interests 
to be developed — The training of skills — Use of 
standardized tests for measuring skill — What to 
teach in arithmetic — First-grade material — Second- 
grade material — Third-grade material — Fourth- 
grade material — Fifth- and sixth-grade material — 
Seventh- and eighth-grade material — Eliminating the 
useless and obsolete — What to omit — Organizing and 
presenting arithmetic — The use of the concrete — 
Training to thought work — The use of drills and re- 
views — Inductive teaching in number — Standards of 
success — Suggestions for arithmetic teaching — Ques- 
tions and problems — References. 

XIV Geography .239 

Nature of geography — Its aim — Knowledge sought — 
Attitudes and interests to be developed — Skills to be 
trained — What should a seventh-grade child know 
in geography — What to teach in geography — First- 
and second-grade material — Third-grade material — 
Fourth- and fifth-grade material — Sixth- and sev- 
enth-grade material — What to leave out— Organiza- 
tion and presentation — Standards for the geography 
recitation— The teacher's preparation for geography 
— Teaching children to study— The use of problems 
— Training to use of the map— Developing imagina- 
tion — Questions and problems — References. 



CONTENTS— Continued 



CHAPTER 

XV History 



PAGE 

260 



Importance of history study — Aim sought — Neces- 
sary knowledge — Attitudes and interests — Applied 
skills — The subject-matter to be taught — First- and 
second-grade material — Third- and fourth-grade ma- 
terial — Fifth- and sixth-grade material — Seventh- 
and eighth-grade material — What to omit in history 
— Organizing and presenting material — Creating an 
atmosphere of reality — Dramatizing — Training the 
pupils to think — The correlations of history — Ques- 
tions and problems — References. 



XVI Civics 



277 



Why American children should study civics — The 
aim of teaching civics — Types of knowledge required 
— Cultivation of civic attitudes and ideals — The prac- 
tise of citizenship — What to teach in elementary 
civics — Practical sources of material — Immediate 
civic relations — Community interests — Laws that all 
should know and obey — Civics and health — What the 
government does for its citizens — What citizens 
should do in return — Good and bad citizens — The 
machinery of government — The units of government 
— Elimination of obsolete and useless material — How 
to teach civics — Teaching civics at Gary — Civics 
through the life of the school — Questions and prob- 
lems — References. 

XVII Physiology and Hygiene 290 

Unsatisfactory results — What should be accom- 
plished — Fruitful knowledge — The development of 
attitudes and ideals — Training to practical skills — 
Subject-matter to be taught — Central emphasis on 
hygiene and practise — Elimination of unsuitable ma- 
terial — Motivating the study — Class-room demon- 
strations — Experiments to be used — Use of dramati- 
zation — Questions and problems — References. 

XVIII Penmanship 308 

Amount of time given to penmanship — The aim — 
Knowledge required — Attitudes — Skills — Conducting 
the writing hour — Models and incentives — Individual 
teaching — The use of standardized scales for deter- 
mining skill — Materials — Questions and problems — >. 
References. 

XIX Agriculture 318 

Aim sought — The knowledge required — Interests to 
be developed — Applied skills to be trained — Material 



CONTENTS— Continued 

CHAPTER PAGE 

for the elementary grades — Seventh- and eighth- 
grade material — What to omit — Organizing and pre- 
senting the material — Home project work — Agricul- 
tural demonstrations — Play contests — The making of 
collections — Use of note-books — Junior extension 
work — Questions and problems — References. 

XX Home Economics 335 

Why home economics should be taught — The result 
sought — Knowledge required — Attitudes to be de- 
veloped — Skills to be trained — Subject-matter for the 
earlier grades — Seventh- and eighth-grade material 
— Connecting subject with home work — Laboratory 
work in the rural schools — Equipment required — 
Practical results — Problem work — Questions and 
Problems — References. 



PART THREE: CLASS-ROOM MANAGEMENT 

XXI Management and the Recitation . . . . . . 349 

The place of good management — Measures of good 
class-room management — All class-room activities to 
advance the aim — Securing self-control — The spirit 
of the class room — Influence of building and equip- 
ment — Influence of community spirit — Influence of 
leadership — The personal factor in management — 
Decision and poise of character — Uniformity of de- 
mands — Futility of scolding — Class-room routine — 
Routine and habit — Routine as a measure of the 
teacher — Physical conditions in the class room — 
Questions and problems — References. * 

XXII Class-room Management and Moral Conduct . . 364 

Character the aim of all education — The treatment 
of misdemeanors — Classification of misdemeanors — 
The value of confession — Accusation versus confes- 
sion — Shall children tell on one another? — The place 
of punishment — Impulsive punishment — Retributive 
punishment — Deterrent punishment — Educative pun- 
ishment — Corporal punishment — Delayed punish- 
ments — The place of incentives — Competition as an 
incentive — The question of prizes — Management of 
examinations — Exemption from examinations — Ex- 
aminations and worry — Utilizing examinations in 
teaching — Examinations and honesty — Questions and 
problems — References. 

Index 383 



CLASS-ROOM METHOD 
AND MANAGEMENT 



Class-Room 
Method and Management 

Part One: Foundation Principles 
CHAPTER I 

METHOD IN EDUCATION 

METHOD in education — but is there such a thing as 
method? Or are there of necessity as many "meth- 
ods" as there are teachers? Must not each of us have his 
own method and make it different from the method of any 
one else ? Must there not be as many different methods as 
there are subjects to teach, each subject demanding its own 
special method after its kind? Must I not employ as great 
a number of methods as I have children in my class, adapt- 
ing my method to the mind and grasp of each child ? And 
does not all this so complicate the question of method that 
it resolves itself into a hopeless tangle to which we can find 
neither head nor tail? — So why waste time on the subject! 

The Importance of Method 

We shall hope to find answers to these questions as the text 
goes on. But the very fact that such questions naturally arise 
and that they seem to imply a negation of method suggests the 
need of a thoroughgoing study of the principles underlying it. 
For we can not thus put the problem of method lightly aside. 
Nor must we evade it because it appears difficult. The ques- 

1 



2 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

tion of method is fundamental in any scheme of education. 
It lies at the basis of all good teaching. Its validity meas- 
ures the worth of instruction, and its excellence conditions 
the result of effort expended by the pupils in learning. Not 
to employ good method in the class room is in large degree 
to render futile all other school facilities, however good and 
complete. 

The function of method. — This is true because method 
finds its function at the most crucial point of the entire 
process of education — where the teacher meets the child 
face to face in the business of teaching and learning. 
Method motivates and guides all our instruction. It selects 
material and determines emphasis. It adapts what we teach 
to the learner's mind and seeks the adequate incentives to 
effort. It underlies the whole question of aim and the means 
of its attainment in teaching. And it is for these things that 
we erect school buildings, provide courses of study and 
maintain schools. 

It is probably not too much to say, therefore, that our 
final measure as teachers is best determined by our ability 
to conceive and use the fundamental principles of method. 
If we were all able to employ as good method in our in- 
struction as is now known through the researches of psy- 
chology and the science of education, it is likely that fully 
one-half the pupil's time might be saved, or his progress 
doubled. This means, if the estimate be true, that it is 
within our power, through the use of good method, to 
double the efficiency of our educational system! 

Method Not Standardized 

In spite of the fundamental importance of method it is 
yet in a crude state. In few if any fields of instruction has 
method been standardised; that is to say, there is no 



METHOD IN EDUCATION 3 

general agreement on the question, either as to theory or 
practise. Nor does this apply to new fields of instruction 
alone, but also to subjects such as language and mathe- 
matics, which have been in the curriculum for centuries. 
On no other phase of educational theory or practise is there 
so little agreement and so much difference of opinion as on 
method. Equally successful teachers use very different 
methods, while those of vastly different degrees of ef- 
ficiency may be employing the same method. In fact there 
are not a few skeptics who scoff at the whole question of 
method. Some go so far as to say that what one knows 
himself he can teach to others, without troubling himself 
about any details of method. But thoughtful teachers know 
better than this, and those who make such claims are usually 
the best refutation of their own false position. 

Many conflicting methods. — The feeling on the part 
of teachers that method, even if still in a nebulous stage, is 
of primary importance has brought about the invention of 
many diverse "methods" in almost every field of instruction. 
Witness all the transformations in method from Comenius 
down to Montessori. So-called methods spring up like 
mushrooms overnight to flourish for a season, and then fall 
away to be heard of no more. Who has not been bewildered 
and perchance puzzled by the conflicting arguments for 
rival methods for the teaching of language, nature study, 
number, or what not ! And who has not seen the methods 
advanced so successfully and defended so valiantly this 
year superseded next year, or next decade, by other methods 
as promising, but as short-lived ! One has but to recall cer- 
tain famous "methods" greatly in vogue a few years ago, 
but now to be found only in the scrap-heap of educational 
theories, to understand the ephemeral nature of many of the 
methods that have been invented. 

The trouble has been that most of these so-called methods 



4 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

have lacked a foundation of psychological and educational 
principles, and so have failed in the test of use. They have 
been founded on the sand of mere personal opinion or in- 
dividual aptitude and could not stand the storms of criticism 
or even the more moderate strain of general service in the 
class room. They have lacked vitality and permanence be- 
cause they did not successfully meet the needs of the child. 

Can Method Be Standardised 

Is there, then, no such thing as method, but only an eter- 
nal succession of short-lived "methods" ? Must we all go at 
our instruction more or less blindly, depending on an em- 
pirical cut-and-try process to discover what is valuable and 
what is futile in our teaching? Can we reach no common 
ground of agreement in instruction simply because there is 
none ? Must the science and philosophy of education admit 
that this, the most fundamental of all questions in teaching, 
is, for the present at least, beyond the reach of help or 
guidance ? Are there no principles whose validity and value 
have been tested and upon which we may build a more per- 
manent and trustworthy structure of method than has yet 
appeared? Must all our progress in teaching be won anew 
by each novice at the expense of the children he teaches? 
Is there no hope of standardizing method? 

Standardizing method. — Method can never be standard- 
ized in the sense of making it an iron-clad set of rules or a 
fixed mode of procedure in teaching to be obediently fol- 
lowed by all alike. The infinitely diverse personalities of 
both teachers and pupils, and the many aspects and varieties 
of subject-matter to be taught make this wholly impossible. 
Yet there are certain fundamental principles upon which 
effective and valid method can be built. And these are en- 
tirely susceptible of discovery and analysis. 



METHOD IN EDUCATION 



The standardizing of method will therefore depend on the 
discovery and application of a proved set of guiding prin- 
ciples, rather than on agreement as to any set of minor 
details. While there can be no such thing as a method to be 
adopted and used in precisely the same fashion by all teach- 
ers, there are reasonably definite laws upon which every 
teacher can base his instruction. iVnd, knowing these prin- 
ciples and laws, we can each apply them to our particular 
subject and class. While latitude must always be left for 
the individuality of the teacher, and while as far as details 
go there will of necessity be as many different modes of 
teaching a subject as there are teachers, yet there is a matrix 
of true method out of which all methods should grow. 

Foundation principles of method. — The principles of 
method, lying, as will be shown later, deep in the needs and 
demands of society on the one hand and in the nature of the 
learner on the other, are broad enough to include all the 
fields or subjects of instruction. Their range and scope are 
sufficient to embrace all ages and stages of learning from the 
kindergarten to the university. The principles of method, 
once formulated into a usable program may, therefore, be 
of service to all teachers, no matter what their field, or the 
stage of advancement of their pupils. 

But we must understand from the first that no system of 
method can be devised to take the place of insight and effort 
on the part of the teacher. Far from being a ready-made 
device capable of being put into use without our under- 
standing its structure or intent, true method is rather a 
means by which we more skilfully use our own powers of 
interpretation, thought and skill in teaching. Instead of 
taking from us the necessity for initiative, method rightly 
conceived, opens the way for individuality and invention; 
instead of being a limitation, it becomes a condition of free- 
dom. Not a piece of self-operating machinery, therefore, 



6 fcLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

but an instrument of instruction created by our own intelli- 
gence and guided by our mastery is what we seek through 
method. 

The Teacher's Knowledge of Method 

It is the teachers business to know the principles of 
method. The industrial world has discarded blundering 
empiricism as a means of reaching results. The methods 
and processes used in the production and distribution of 
wealth are guided by carefully determined scientific laws 
and formulas. Nothing in either of these fields is left to 
chance or accidental success. Efficiency and the elimination 
of waste are the watchwords of commercial activities. Busi- 
ness, commerce and industry have quit guessing and gone 
to finding out. 

Scientific spirit demands better method.— Indications 
that this same spirit is entering our system of education are 
not lacking. But only a beginning has been made in deter- 
mining our educational procedure by scientific laws now 
available. As teachers we need more fully to realize that 
preparation for teaching involves more than a mastery of 
the field of knowledge to be taught. We need to see that 
teaching requires not only a knowledge of the matter of 
instruction, but also of its technique, that is, of its method. 

Nor is the obligation at this point less upon the adminis- 
trators of education — the superintendents, principals and 
supervisors — than upon the teachers. Under our present 
educational organization it will be impossible, at least within 
any reasonable time, to have all teachers professionally 
trained. But all who supervise or administer education 
should be professionally educated. Supervision has here- 
tofore devoted itself very largely to the oversight of fiscal 
and physical matters and to problems of organization and 



METHOD IN EDUCATION 7 

control. Superintendents have been chiefly business man- 
agers. There has been comparatively little supervision of 
teaching; and teaching, as already shown, is the crux of the 
whole educational process, the point at which our schools 
finally succeed or fail. The educational supervision of the 
future must therefore extend to matters of method; it must 
be able to advise, counsel and help the teacher in the actual 
work of instruction. The obligation that this point of view 
places on the administrator is obvious ; he must be a master 
of method, as well as of the business and organization 
phases of education. 

The Functional Viezv of Method 

While the analysis of the elements entering into method 
will be made in detail in a later chapter, it will be service- 
able to consider at this place the view-point from which to 
approach the subject. 

Method measured by what it will do. — We may look 
on almost any concept, either (1) from the point of view of 
its structure or (2) of its function. We may concern our- 
selves with how a thing is made, or with what it does. The 
criterion for the judging of method is the functional — what 
will the method do in advancing the learning of the pupil. 

The failure of many of the attempts at formulating meth- 
ods have been due to conceiving it from the wrong point of 
view. Method has too often become an end in itself instead 
of a means. The inventor of a "method" has looked on his 
creation with pride and said, "See what a beautiful piece of 
educational machinery! Note its structure. See how per- 
fect its adjustment, part to part. How smoothly the joints 
fit! How well it is fitted to the subject-matter which it sets 
forth." 

But lo! the beautiful piece of educational mechanism is 



8 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

soon laid aside and heard of no more. Where is the trouble ? 
Was not the mechanism well devised; did not the joints fit; 
were not the parts admirably adjusted? Yes, all this was 
very true, and yet the method proved futile; for it was 
built on plans and specifications that had in mind a certain 
structure — a bit of mechanism calculated to accommodate 
some section of subject-matter. The maker of the method 
had not conceived his method as a means of fitting into the 
needs and demands of the children who were to learn the 
matter. He had fixed his thought on the mechanism instead 
of on the working of his creation — on its structure rather 
than its function. This is all to say that the inventor took 
a logical instead of a psychological point of view of method. 
He was concerned with the arrangement of material rather 
than with the activities and needs of growing minds. 

The needs of children in their learning determine the 
method. — The requirements of the learner and not of 
the material are the basis of all true method. Method must 
be primarily psychological instead of logical or mechanical. 
Indeed method was defined by Froebel as the psychologizing 
of subject-matter. The question then becomes, not how can 
a given amount of material be arranged in its logical di- 
visions and sections to show the relations of a finished 
whole, but how can this vital subject-matter be organized 
and presented so as to afford the learner the most natural 
mode of approach to its mastery? What method shall I 
take to stimulate and guide the child in the unfolding of his 
powers and the gaining of the knowledge and attitudes re- 
quired in his living? How can I teach children instead of 
teaching arithmetic, grammar or Latin? 

The practical outcome of the difference between the logi- 
cal and the psychological type of method will be further 
discussed in a later chapter. 



METHOD IN EDUCATION 9 

Summarizing, we are obliged to conclude that, though 
the question of method presents many difficulties, it must 
be solved if teaching is to keep pace with other professions ; 
that, while method is so far but little standardized, it can 
nevertheless be standardized under broad fundamental laws 
and principles ; that the failure to work out permanent and 
fruitful methods for the various school subjects has come 
from neglect of these fundamental laws and principles, and 
not from insuperable difficulties in the problem itself; and 
finally, that no teacher is prepared to teach and no superin- 
tendent to direct who does not have a working mastery of 
the principles of educational method. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. In how far can you say you have a method of teaching the 
different subjects? How did you come by your present method: 
copy it from another teacher, appropriate it from reading or instruc- 
tion, or consciously develop it out of your own observation, experi- 
ence, study and the needs of your class? Which is the best way? 

2. What is the distinction between method and device? What is 
the test of a good method or device? May a method be easy for the 
teacher to handle, and yet not valuable to the class ? 

3. It is said that we get only about fifteen per cent, of the energy 
in coal actually applied in the locomotive engine. What proportion 
of the available ability of your pupils do you estimate is left latent 
through your inability to set all of their powers at work? How does 
this bear on the problem of method? 

4. Examine some of the popular "methods" now in use to deter- 
mine whether the method seems to have been conceived to accom- 
modate a certain range of material, or to fit the needs of the child's 
mind. 

5. In your experience with superintendents and principals, in 
how far have you found them helpful in connection with your 
teaching — the method and instruction side of your work? 




CHAPTER II 

METHOD AND THE POINT OF VIEW 

EFORE taking up a detailed study of methods let us 
briefly consider the best mode of approach to our 
problem. One's understanding and use of method depend 
primarily on the point of view from which he looks on 
education as a whole. What is education? What is its 
process and what its purpose ? Just what changes are taking 
place in the individual when he is in the process of being 
educated? And, by the same token, how shall we know 
when he has become educated; what are the marks of an 
educated man? Our answer to these questions will depend 
on our educational point of view — on the part we believe 
that education should play in the life of present-day men 
and women. 

A definite purpose. — The questions we have asked 
naturally lead to certain others : What part shall the particu- 
lar subject or field you or I may teach play in education — in 
the education of our individual pupils ? What is the function 
of our subject as educational material? Why should I be 
teaching history, or you be teaching language, and the chil- 
dren studying these subjects rather than some other section 
of human culture? What should be the effective outcome, 
the educational result, of the language, the number, the 
science, or the history that we teach our pupils ? In a word, 
what definite effects do you and I seek and expect through 
our instruction ? What specific changes do we aim to secure 
in our pupils which otherwise would not occur? 

10 



METHOD AND THE POINT OF VIEW 11 



The Two Factors in Education 

It is not necessary that we should give a full and formal 
answer to our questions at this point. The answers will 
develop as our study proceeds. But at the very outset we 
must remember that there are the two fundamental factors, 
and not, as many have assumed, but one to be dealt with in 
our teaching. The child, as well as the subject-matter, is to 
be taken into account. 

The objective of teaching. — As Professor Adams re- 
minds us, "Verbs of teaching govern two accusatives, one 
of the person, another of the thing; as Magister Johannem 
Latinem docuit — the master taught John Latin." And John 
comes first. Our function as teacher is primarily to serve 
as an intermediary between these two factors — John and 
his Latin. We are to bring the child into contact with cer- 
tain matter to be learned — the culture material, or past ex- 
perience, of the race. Out of the action and interaction of 
these two, education is to come. Out of the child's response 
to this material, the way he grapples with it, masters it, 
finally lives it, come his educational growth and develop- 
ment. 

To illustrate this fundamental truth still further: The 
child comes into the world, indeed comes into the school, 
with much potential and very little actual capital. Nature 
has through heredity endowed him with all the powers and 
capacities he will ever have. But these are still in embry- 
onic form. They lie relatively dormant, waiting for the 
awakening that comes through the stimuli of the world about 
and the experiences of the school. Given just the right touch 
at the opportune moment, and these potential powers, now 
but a promise, will spring into dynamic abilities, actively at 



12 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

work in the world. Left without the necessary stimuli, none 
of the capacities supplied by nature will reach their full 
function, and many will lie impotently fallow. 

Education the producing and directing of changes. — 
Let us not, on the other hand, be deceived. Education 
creates no power or capacity ; it only develops what nature, 
through heredity, has planted in the individual. What is 
evolved through the process of education must first have 
been involved by biological transmission from ancestry, near 
and remote. 

As Thorndike so skilfully insists, all education may be 
looked on as a process of effecting certain changes among 
the original powers and capacities of the individual. Some 
of these original tendencies are, through education, to be 
encouraged, strengthened and rendered more certain; they 
are to be trained and set at work in the great social process 
of which we are a part. Other tendencies are to be checked, 
suppressed, or replaced by more useful ones. In short, 
through education the desirable potentialities of the child 
are to be made actual, and the undesirable ones eliminated 
to the largest possible degree. 

Subject-Matter an Instrument in the Teacher's Hands 

True it is that many of the most fruitful educational 
stimuli come to the child from wholly outside the school 
without the help of teacher or curriculum. The influence 
of the relations and duties of the home, the associations of 
playmates, and the multiform experiences in the great world 
of nature and of people can not be overestimated. No small 
part of the child's education arises in these unorganized 
agencies of education — must arise in them because they 
alone supply the stimuli necessary to many of the original 
powers of the individual. 



METHOD AND THE POINT OF VIEW 13 

Yet it is equally true that these informal agencies can 
not of themselves successfully educate the child. There are 
some powers that require more thorough training than they 
can get outside the school. There are certain abilities that 
demand special treatment to make them efficient. There 
are fields of knowledge, phases of attitude and interests, and 
types of skill that must not be left to chance development by 
uncontrolled agencies, but must be made secure by con- 
sciously planned instruction. 

The function of subject-matter. — These facts suggest 
the point of view from which the teacher is to look on the 
subject-matter he teaches. All subject-matter is to be 
looked on as a tool or instrument in our hands for effecting 
certain changes in the powers and tendencies of the child. 
It is to serve as a stimulus for arousing the child's native 
energies and setting them to work. Through the subject we 
teach, the desirable qualities and capacities of our pupils are 
to be aroused, quickened and encouraged, and the undesi- 
rable ones checked and repressed. Through our instruction 
the life and experience of the learner are to be constantly 
modified the better to fit him into the social activities of 
which he is a part. Our teaching of history, of science, of 
literature is to supply the necessary knowledge, attitudes 
and skills for successful living. 

The real meaning of all this is that we must teach children 
instead of subjects. Subject-matter can never be an end in 
itself. Language, or science, or mathematics, can not be 
taught for its own sake. However beautiful the language, 
however true the science, or however perfect the mathe- 
matics, the crucial question becomes, what will this subject 
accomplish in shaping the powers and tendencies of the 
learner in fruitful directions ? 

Subjects as means instead of ends. — Paradoxically, 
this point of view demands that we shall never teach arith- 



14 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

metic, history or language. We must teach through these. 
They are to our hands what the artist's brushes or the car- 
penter's saws, planes and chisels are to him — not an end in 
themselves, but instruments for shaping into more perfect 
and useful forms the material upon which he works. With 
this position once taken we shall never be proud or satisfied 
with having taught our class so much subject-matter — so 
many pages of history, so many books of Caesar, or so many 
facts of science. We shall rather inquire, what have these 
things done for the boy or girl, what has been the effect of 
our teaching and of their learning? We shall realize that 
in teaching John literature we are not only dealing with two 
objectives, but that the greater of these is John. 

The Student Versus the Teacher 

Even after full acceptance of the position that the effect 
on the learner and not the bestowal of so much subject- 
matter is to be the measure of our teaching it is not so easy 
to carry this view out in practise. For the manipulation of 
material is always easier than the stimulating and directing 
of mind. It is a much simpler thing to teach algebra than 
to teach John. Any one of fair intelligence can master a 
subject or a field of knowledge ; but it is altogether harder 
to interpret the effect that this subject is having on the 
mental process of our pupils. No one has the least trouble 
to learn arithmetic or geometry, but to discover how to use 
these in producing the right changes in the native powers 
and tendencies of a child is infinitely difficult. 

The transformation from student to teacher. — Most of 
us, before we are ready for the school room, must have our 
point of view made over from that of the student to that of 
the teacher. During the time that we ourselves are learners 
instead of teachers our powers of mastery and interpreta- 



METHOD AND THE POINT OF VIEW ) 15 

it 

tion are naturally and rightly centered on the thing we are 
learning. We are studying subject-matter and not thinking 
of teaching it to others. We grasp and master the material 
as best we can from the vantage ground of our own inter- 
ests, intellectual aptitudes and enthusiasms. But the mo- 
ment we become teachers this must change. We shall not, 
of course, forget nor lose out of account the importance of 
the subject-matter we present, but it now ceases to be the 
primary thing in our thought and interpretation. Instead of 
being an end in itself it becomes but an implement in our 
hands, and the developing lives of our pupils stand out as 
the real end and aim of our instruction. 

As Doctor Dewey remarks, the subjects we teach must 
become so much a matter of second nature to us, be so much 
part and parcel of our being, that when we stand before the 
class as teacher all our powers of insight and effort are given 
to shaping the minds of our pupils. The material we teach 
is of supreme significance, but its importance is that of in- 
strument or means and not of end. The transforming mind 
of the child defines the aim of our instruction. 

Dangers to the best prepared teachers. — From one 
point of view the danger of making the material we teach 
an end in itself is greater to those who are academically best 
prepared. The reason for this is not far to seek. The teachers 
who come from university, college, or even from some nor- 
mal schools, have for a number of years lived in an atmos- 
phere of subject-matter. They have been assigned lessons in 
it, studied it, recited it, been examined in it, had it lectured to 
them, and in many other ways had it pressed on them. Their 
instructors have been specialists in their respective fields, 
who lived, moved and had their mental being in the field 
they had espoused. Little wonder that these specialists, im- 
mersed in their subjects and deeply attached to them (and 
who would have them otherwise!), have centered the 



16 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

if ' ' 

thought and affection of their students on the culture mate- 
rial they represent. 

It further comes about that the students who develop spe- 
cial aptitudes for certain fields devote themselves to their 
chosen line still more intensively. Following the inspiration 
of a favorite teacher or the bent of their own interests and 
abilities they specialize in the subject they expect to teach. 
Into this field they delve as deeply as may be, lavishing on 
it their major attention and effort. Feeling inspired and 
stimulated by its truths they dwell upon and become familiar 
with its concepts and lessons and make them a part of their 
lives. In a word, they fall deeply in love with their subject. 

The right attitude toward one's subject. — Let it not 
be understood for a moment that I am criticizing the center- 
ing upon one's subject all the enthusiasm, interest and love 
at his command — as a student. Indeed only this attitude 
toward a field of study can rightly prepare one to teach it. 
Only the enthusiast can arouse enthusiasm in others; in- 
terest is caught by the contagion of other interest. 

But when all this is granted the fact still remains that as 
one passes over from the state of a learner to that of a 
teacher his point of view must change. He will still love 
his subject and not less than before; but as a teacher he 
will prize it not for its own sake, nor for what it means to 
him, but for what he can effect through it in the lives of his 
pupils. He will still be devoted to his field of literature or 
science or what not ; but as a teacher he will cherish it for 
the changes he can cause it to work in the knowledge, the 
interests or the attitudes of his boys and girls. 

Right point of view vital to method. — Until some such 
point of view as that proposed in this chapter is adopted 
there is no possibility of any rational approach to the sub- 
ject of method in its true and broader meaning. For as long 
as subject-matter is conceived, either consciously or uncon- 



METHOD AND THE POINT OF VIEW \7 

sciously, as an end in itself, so long must the mechanism or 
structure instead of the function or effectiveness of the 
method be the criterion of its creation and use. For the 
material and not the child will then be the center of concern. 
Until the stimulating, training and directing of the child's 
powers and capacities instead of the mere lodgment of sub- 
ject-matter in the mind becomes the aim of our teaching, so 
long will our "methods" be devised in accordance with me- 
chanical instead of psychological laws — and so be relatively 
futile. 

Shall we then agree as we enter on our study of method, 
that the point of view from which we conceive education is 
all-important ; that the aim we set up for our particular sub- 
ject must accord with the aim of education as a whole ; that 
no subject-matter can be taught or learned for its own sake, 
but only for what it will accomplish in stimulating and shap- 
ing the powers of the child ; that our geography or literature 
is of value only when it results in fitting the learner more 
successfully into his place and increasing his efficiency in the 
business of living. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Make a list of the points in which an educated man differs 
from an uneducated, arranging these points in the order of their 
importance. Are you ready at this stage of your study to formulate 
a definition of education (not merely quoted) ? 

2. Suppose each of us engages in a little heart searching to de- 
termine whether we are chiefly teaching material or boys and girls. 
That is, what is our standard of success, the lodging of so much 
matter, or the effects of it? 

3. Why is it that elementary teachers are not required to have as 
much preparation as high-school teachers, and receive less pay? Is 
it because it has been assumed that the stuff taught is the measure 
of difficulty in teaching? Measured from the learner's side, which is 
the harder teaching position, in the grades or the high school?. 



18 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

4. Think over the list of teachers you know, or visit a number of 
rooms and try to determine the degree to which each teacher has 
come to realize that he should treat the subject-matter he teaches as 
a means and not an end. 

5. Examine some of the "methods" or devices used in teaching 
number, language, etc., and try to determine whether they were de- 
vised chiefly with the material or the learner in mind. 



CHAPTER III 

WHAT METHOD IS 

WHAT is the nature of method? How is method to 
be determined, and how applied to the work of in- 
struction ? What are the. criteria by which to judge whether 
a given method is valid or vicious? How may we know 
whether the method we are employing in teaching this sub- 
ject or that is adapted to the work required of it ? Is there 
such a thing as a set of guiding principles which we might 
call general method, or are there only special methods, 
whose number and variety must be as great as the different 
fields of instruction? Can I learn to develop good method 
for all the subjects I teach — and how? Some of those ques- 
tions can be answered tentatively at once, and others must 
await the outcome of our entire discussion. 

The Nature of Method 

The word method as employed in education has ordinarily 
been given a much narrower meaning than will be adopted 
in our present study. It has often been limited to a discus- 
sion of the presentation cf rubject-matter in the recitation, 
together with whatever preliminary organization of the mat- 
ter was required for this purpose. Not infrequently the 
term method has been applied to mere devices — temporary 
expedients employed to catch the interest, appeal to the 
spirit of competition, or otherwise narrowly affect some one 
situation or power. 

I The four factors in method. — Manifestly such a con- 

19 



20 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

ception of method is too narrow to admit of a formulation 
of its foundation principles. In the meaning that we shall 
employ, method deals not with presentation in the recitation 
alone, but includes the whole problem involved in facilitating 
learning. It begins with the fundamental question of the pur- 
pose of our instruction — the why. It investigates the most 
favorable subject-matter for the accomplishment of this 
purpose — the zvhat. It then inquires how best to organize 
such material for instruction; and finally considers how to 
present the chosen material in order to attain the desired 
end — the how. 

j Method in this broad sense, therefore, springs from four 
roots, or in another figure, it rests on a fourfold founda- 
tion: (1) the aim, or function, of the subject-matter, de- 
fined in terms of the results sought in the development of 
the child; (2) the material to be selected with reference to 
this aim and placed before the learner for his mastery; 
(3) the preparing, or organizing, of the subject-matter to 
adapt it to the mind of the child; and (4) the technique of 
instruction, or presentation. Let us see how each of these 
is related to the others, and how all combine to determine 
method. 

The Part Played by a Definite Aim 

i 

Our whole scheme of education probably suffers more 
from lack of a definite aim than from any other one defect. 
This is certainly true of our teaching. You may teach your 
grammar or I my geometry without knowing what we par- 
ticularly expect to accomplish through them in the training 
of the child; hence we shall not know whether we have 
finally accomplished the right thing or not. We may go 
through the process of instruction without having con- 
sciously aimed at any definite goal, so we shall have no way 



WHAT METHOD IS 21 

of telling whether we have reached any goal worth attain- 
ing. In such teaching the saving quality of purpose is ab- 
sent. It can succeed only by accident. It lacks method. 

Aim sets the goal.— The first question, then, in the 
formulation of method in any field is that of the aim, or 
function, of the subject. If, as we saw in the first chapter, 
each subject of the curriculum is an instrument with which 
to work on certain powers and capacities of the learner, the 
necessity of determining what powers and capacities are to 
be acted on and how they are to be affected is obvious. The 
ability to set up an aim and select means for its attainment 
is fundamental to successful achievement in any line of 
action. He who can not conceive an aim to be reached 
through his endeavor works blindly and by chance. He has 
no way of knowing whether he is employing the right means 
or instruments. He can not judge the success of his en- 
deavors or estimate the value of the processes employed. 
He is like a man groping in the dark for a prize, the very 
nature and location of which he does not know. 

Aim determines the material to be used. — Until we 
have a clear conception of the aim of education, and what 
it should do for its possessor, we shall be unable to deter- 
mine whether we are employing the best subject-matter for 
the accomplishing of the end sought ; nor can we safely de- 
cide whether the type of instruction we adopt is successful 
or not. More specifically, unless we know the function or 
aim of the geography, Latin, or literature we teach, that is, 
unless we know what abilities and tendencies these subjects 
are intended to stimulate and direct in the child, we can not 
determine what geography, what science, what Latin, or 
what literature to teach for this purpose ; nor can we decide 
on their best organization for instruction and their most 
effective mode of presentation. 

Jo express this truth by an analogy. Suppose I am an 



22 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT, 

expert architect, and you ask me to specify the material that 
should be used in a structure the building of which you 
have in mind. It is clear that I shall be unable to advise you 
until I know the purpose of your structure. If the building 
is to be used for purposes of exhibition and show without 
any idea of permanence, strength or long-continued useful- 
ness, I will specify one kind of material. If, on the other 
hand, this building is to stand for a long period of time, if 
it is to endure as a stately example of the permanence and 
value of religion or patriotism, if it is to withstand the 
stress of daily use and much service, then I must advise an 
entirely different kind of material. So also with the method, 
or process, of the building of your structure. One class of 
building activity or workmanship would serve for a tempo- 
rary structure intended only for display, while an altogether 
different method would be required for a structure designed 
to serve for centuries of steady use. 

Aim and the structure of education. — Applying the 
analogy somewhat more closely to education, suppose you 
ask me what subject-matter one should study. If I con- 
ceive that the aim of education is merely to polish, if it is 
to supply a temporary veneer, if it is to 'train a narrow set 
of mental abilities to a high degree of skill, then the material 
used may be of the kind that will yield polish, veneer, or the 
sharpening of wits. If, on the other hand, I believe that 
education is to prepare for the day's life, with all the stresses 
and strains of its work or its play, if it is to help in meeting 
the problems and responsibilities hourly thrust upon one in 
the thick of social process about us, if it is to fit us into our 
niche in life as a fruitful participant in the activities of our 
day, then I shall advise that the material built into our edu- 
cational structure shall be adapted to this end and not to the 
other. It is all a matter of aim, or purpose. 



WHAT METHOD* IS 23 



The Material of Education Must Be Suited to the Aim 

Not only must aim determine the material, but the mate- 
rial must be specifically adapted to the aim desired. When 
the great public schools of England set up as their aim the 
training of an English gentleman, they do not offer a cur- 
riculum of industrial, commercial or technological subjects ; 
for their outcome would contradict the English ideal of a 
gentleman. When Germany fixes her aim at producing the 
most highly skilled technical workers, the subject-matter 
taught in the schools devoted to this end is calculated to 
train to technological pursuits. Our schools can not accom- 
plish the aim of preparing for industrial pursuits if the cur- 
riculum contains material adapted chiefly to commercial or 
professional careers. Education can not prepare for the 
problems and stress of the day's living if the material 
studied bears no relation to such problems. We must put 
into the hopper what we desire to carry away from the mill. 

More definitely, the purpose to be achieved by the teach- 
ing of arithmetic, history or botany can not be reached ex- 
cept by selecting for these branches the material suited to 
the aim conceived. It is futile to say that the study of arith- 
metic must result in facility and accuracy in the common 
computations needed in the home, on the farm or in the 
shop, and then give the child highly complex, theoretical and 
unreal problems to solve, while omitting those that relate to 
home, farm and shop. If the aim of history is a knowledge 
of one's country, loyalty to its welfare and a sense of kin- 
ship with the great men and women of other times, we must 
give the youth who studies history more than a list of dry 
dates, unimportant events, and tedious military campaigns 
for his reading. And so with every other subject. The 



24 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

i 

material and the aim must go hand in hand. But more of 
this later. 

Instruction Must Fit Aim and Material 

1 The same line of reasoning holds for the remaining fac- 
tors in method, the organization and presentation of mate- 
rial in the recitation. Once the aim and the material are 
decided on, the remaining question of method turns on how 
to arrange and present the chosen material to accomplish the 
desired aim. The most fruitful subject-matter may be ren- 
dered dead and useless and the most important aim made 
futile through poor technique in instruction. 

Technique of instruction must be adapted to aim. — Aim 
therefore determines the method of the recitation. If I am 
to determine the best manner of organizing and presenting 
the material for a given recitation, I must know the end 
sought through this recitation. If it is to ground the class 
permanently in certain fundamentals, a wholly different 
method will be required from that calculated to display the 
brightness and quickness of the class to chance visitors. If 
the aim is to catch the fleeting interest, tickle the fancy, or 
feed the egotism of the pupils, one type- of recitation will 
serve; but if the purpose is to develop independence and 
originality, cultivate careful thinking and exact expression, 
or otherwise encourage the more serious side of develop- 
ment, then a different recitation method is required. Again 
the question is one of selecting the right means to attain our 
aim. We shall need to look a little more closely into aim as 
the controlling factor in education. 

Determining the Educational Aim 

We have seen that the aim of education must determine 
both its subject-matter and the method of instruction. But 



WHAT METHOD IS 25 

what determines the aim of education? How are we to 
know when we have fixed on the right aim for education in 
general or for any subject or field in particular? When is a 
person to be called educated, and by what means does he 
arrive at this state? Just what do we seek to do to or for 
him through his education ? There have been plenty of dog- 
matic answers given to our questions, but most of them are 
not convincing. 

Of this much, however, we may be sure at the start : The 
aim of education as a whole must set the aim for each sub- 
ject or branch. Whatever the whole of one's education 
seeks to accomplish, the language, arithmetic or science he 
studies must do its part to attain. There is no place for the 
useless or obsolete. The whole must include the parts, and 
the parts together must make up the whole. 

Conflicting aims in education. — There has been much 
controversy and little agreement as to the central aim of 
education. It does not fall within the scope of this work to 
enter into any extended discussion of the controversy, yet 
a brief statement of the points at issue is necessary. Two 
quite distinct ideals have been advanced as the end of edu- 
cation, the terms most commonly used to express each being 
culture and utility, respectively. One reason for the dis- 
agreement of the adherents of these two ideals is that 
neither culture nor utility has been, or perhaps can be, 
sharply defined so that one may know precisely what is 
meant by the terms. Further confusion is created by the 
fact that the meaning of the two terms has come to overlap. 
All culture as conceived in modern times contains many 
elements of utility; and utility, especially under our demo- 
cratic ideals of life, is by no means devoid of culture. 

The older culture ideal as the aim of education arose be- 
fore the days of democracy. It has its roots in an aristo- 
cratic civilization. The educated man was not to serve ; he 



26 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

was to be served by those lower than himself in station. He 
was not to work, but be worked for. Training that would 
prepare for service was only for servants. Education that 
would make one a better worker was only for the unfor- 
tunate man who was obliged to labor. Hence the "cultured" 
aristocratic would have nothing of the practical or utilitarian 
in his education, as he feared it would class him with the 
despised masses. Culture and practical utility were as far 
apart as the poles. This traditional view of culture still ob- 
tains in no small degree, but it is giving way before the 
democratic ideals that dignify labor and almost deify 
service. 

The newer definition of culture. — Culture must remain 
a chief aim in our education, but its definition is being radi- 
cally changed. The culture of the future will not be mere 
polish, nor discipline of the powers and abilities without 
any reference to the part they are to play in actual affairs. 

The newer culture will include (1) a spirit of artistry in 
work and achievement. It will not call that man cultured 
who is satisfied with low-grade or mediocre performance, 
no matter what be the line of his occupation. 

The new cultural ideal will involve (2)* a spirit of social 
good will and service. Under its inspiration education will 
not be looked on as a means of securing selfish advantage 
at the expense of others. On the contrary, it will consider 
education as the means of opening the way to greater serv- 
ice for one's fellows while attaining the highest satisfaction 
and success for himself. 

The newer culture will (3) develop a capacity for fine 
appreciations in a wide range of contacts and experiences. 
One's training will lead him to value the beauty and good- 
ness of the world about him, and to take pleasure and satis- 
faction in their appeal to his life. 

Culture under its newer definition will (4) result in put- 



WHAT METHOD IS 27 

ting into the possession of its possessor a large fund of inner 
resources that will yield satisfaction and enjoyment. The 
trained mind ; the well-stocked memory ; the warm imagery 
of people, places and events ; the knowledge of one's world ; 
and the sense of worthy destiny accomplished are typical of 
these personal resources. 

Culture and utility. — From the foregoing point of view 
there is no real conflict between culture and utility. It is 
true that the term "utility" has meant chiefly the narrower 
practical abilities such as are directly used in the every-day 
affairs of life, more especially such as are employed in the 
economic or bread-and-butter activities. But the concept of 
utility is also growing broader and richer, like that of 
culture. 

The advocates of utility as the outcome of education at- 
tach great importance to the subject-matter employed. Their 
insistence is for content studies as against formal studies. 
They are not indifferent to culture, but believe that culture 
will result from studies that are directly related to every- 
day interests and affairs as well as from those that have no 
direct bearing on real life and experience. 

The efficiency aim. — Happily for our present discus- 
sion we do not need to take sides in this ancient controversy 
between culture and utility. The more recently developed 
social aim of education includes the best from both of the 
older ideals and smooths out the sharp points of conflict 
between them. 

Under the social ideal, the aim of education is conceived 
as fitting one into the social activities of his day — not only 
stimulating certain powers and abilities, but setting them at 
work in the carrying out of the individual's responsibility to 
himself and society. Whatever accomplishes this is educa- 
tion. Whatever fails to do it can not be classified as educa- 
tion. Whatever fits one effectively into the process, the day's 



28 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

work and its play, will of necessity possess a large measure 
of culture — of those qualities that satisfy the self and please 
and serve others. And whatever does this will also possess 
the highest degree of utility. Thus the demands of the con- 
troverted aims of education are both met in the newer con- 
cept. In our further discussion we shall therefore accept 
the social aim of education as defining the aim of each sub- 
ject and branch of the curriculum. Education must prepare 
for social efficiency, and every subject taught must con- 
tribute its share to this end. 

Terms in Which the Educational Aim May be Expressed 

When we say that the aim of education is to prepare the 
individual for the social activities of his time we have, after 
all, a very general expression. What is meant by preparing 
the individual for the social activities, how is he to be fitted 
into them, and finally, how is education to accomplish this 
adjustment ? 

In answering our question let us first ask another : What 
does the person who to-day seeks to take his part in the life 
going on about him require in the way^ of preparation? 
What is demanded of him as he assumes the duties of home, 
state, church, community and vocation? What are the at- 
tributes, or qualities, he needs as he goes out to meet the 
day's duties as a participant in the world's work and its 
play? 

Three fundamental requirements of education. — Every 
individual requires (1) certain lines of knowledge; (2) 
certain attitudes, ideals, standards and interests; and 
(3) certain skills, or the application of knowledge and 
attitudes to the use of his powers. It is therefore the busi- 
ness of education to see that the individual is not lacking in 
essential knowledge, the fundamental attitudes toward life 



WHAT METHOD IS 29 

and society, or in the ability to put his powers successfully 
at work. Every separate subject or branch of the curricu- 
lum must bear its responsibility in yielding its particular 
contribution to the knowledge, attitudes and skills required. 

The knowledge requirement. — One must know his 
world. Only through knowledge does power come. It is 
not enough that one shall have high ambitions, noble feel- 
ing, and the will to achieve. He must have a mastery of 
the facts to be met with and their relations to one another 
and to himself. Lacking this knowledge he is a ship without 
a rudder driven helpless by every gale and current encoun- 
tered. Ignorance of one's world always means weakness 
and inefficiency. It is sure to spell defeat. 

To be still more specific in our analysis : What knowledge 
is most required by one who is to live broadly himself and 
contribute his share to the social welfare? The field of 
knowledge is well-nigh endless, and no one person can hope 
to master more than a small fraction of the whole. We 
must therefore carefully select within the field of knowl- 
edge. 

Knowledge of most worth. — It will of course be im- 
possible to answer in detail just what knowledge is of most 
worth in education. Spencer attempted this years ago, and 
many others have tried it before and since. Yet an impor- 
tant underlying principle is becoming increasingly clear: 
The knowledge supplied by education must be fruitful. By 
being fruitful, we mean that it must have the most vital and 
concrete bearing possible at important points of actual ex- 
perience in the social activities. There can be no "knowl- 
edge for its own sake." Knowledge has grown up bit by 
bit out of the needs and crises of human experience, and its 
great function is to lead its possessor to-day back to a more 
fruitful and valuable experience. This aim of education 
does not, therefore, consist in the mere appropriation of 



30 fcLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

knowledge, any knowledge, but in the mastery of the knowl- 
edge that will function in the business of living, that will 
shape conduct, that will direct effort, and that will insure 
achievement. 

Knowledge that has no relation to duties, problems and 
responsibilities, knowledge calculated to result only in the 
training of powers that have no point of contact with actual 
experience, or knowledge meant to contribute but a surface 
polish or veneer without substantial foundation of true 
worth may well give way in the process of education to 
more vital and fruitful knowledge. The rigid application of 
this principle to our school curriculum would beyond ques- 
tion result in a radical modification of much of its material. 
There are many signs that the application and consequent 
modification are getting under way. 

The training of attitudes. — Attitudes, ideals, standards 
and interests are no less important a part of education than 
knowledge. For one's attitudes and ideals constitute a 
background to his life which modifies and colors all other 
values. They act as a matrix out of which the impulses to 
activity and conduct spring. They serve as stimuli and 
guides, directing effort and leading to achievement. In 
short, attitudes are the great motive sources of conduct. 

The significance of attitudes and interests is readily un- 
derstood by the teacher who has had to do with pupils whose 
attitude toward school or toward particular studies was bad. 
Indifference, lack of interest, low ideals, or any kind of hos- 
tility is an effective bar to effort and accomplishment in 
every phase of school work. 

The practical value of attitudes. — In similar manner 
may we press the importance of attitudes toward the larger 
questions of life and vocation. Chesterton says that the 
most important question about any man is the "kind of 



WHAT METHOD IS 31 

philosophy he keeps" — the manner in which he looks out on 
the opportunities and responsibilities that confront him. 
Every person develops some sort of philosophy of life, 
some standards of value by which he judges what is most 
worth while as an end toward which to apply his energies 
and direct his efforts. That most people are unconscious of 
having possessed themselves of such a life philosophy does 
not detract in the least from its importance and influence. 
Their points of view, standards of value, and ideals are 
nevertheless at work in their choice of vocation, determin- 
ing the quality of their citizenship, deciding the value of 
their relations as members of homes, churches or commu- 
nities, and otherwise conditioning the outcome of their life 
and experience. 

The importance of the attitude phase of education has 
not yet been fully recognized. Knowledge has been the 
chief, if not the sole, criterion of education in the minds of 
many. True, we have come to realize more or less clearly 
that to equip an individual with knowledge and at the same 
time leave him with an attitude of rebellion against the 
moral order and of hostility toward society falls far short 
of accomplishing the end of education, and but leaves us 
with a potential criminal on our hands. We have not, how- 
ever, applied this principle broadly in our education. In an 
industrial nation and an industrial age we find that our 
schools have served to lead away from, rather than toward, 
industrial occupations. The result has been a surplus of 
workers in professional and mercantile vocations, and a' 
shortage of skilled artisans. We have not yet come to real- 
ize that the attitude developed toward great lines of culture 
from their study — history, science, literature — is much more 
important than the modicum of knowledge gained. The 
attitudes and ideals created concerning the values to be 



32 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

striven for in vocation and avocation, and in the relations 
of home and state and church are of supreme importance 
in education. 

Skills as an aim in education. — Finally, with reference 
to skills, or control, as an end in education. Fruitful knowl- 
edge and good attitudes should eventuate in deeds and 
achievement. Otherwise they have no significance in a 
practical world of affairs. One should not only develop his 
powers but secure control over them. He must not only be 
able to think and feel, but also to do. To be a successful 
participant in the activities of his times one must possess 
various skills. He must be able to direct trained capacities 
to fruitful effort. 

This means that one must not only possess fruitful knowl- 
edge, but that this knowledge shall be so organized and ap- 
plied that it brings results. One not only needs to develop 
strong muscles and steady nerves, but to have these trained 
to sure and ready response in worthy directions. He not only 
must know the right and the wrong in the moral order, but 
have such control over the self as to be able to choose the 
right and turn from the wrong under the stress of tempta- 
tion. He must not only possess knowledge of the social 
order and a right attitude toward social problems, but have 
the skill to do his part in bringing about social progress and 
needed reform. In short, education must include as its aim 
the development of skills, or the ability to do, equally with 
the attainment of knowledge and the creation of right atti- 
tudes and ideals. 

The following three chapters will be given to a further 
elaboration of the knowledge aim, the attitudes aim and the 
skills aim of education. 

In consideration of the point of view presented in this 
chapter we shall, then, look on method as beginning with 



WHAT METHOD IS 33 

the question of the aim or purpose to be attained through 
what we teach in the education of the child. We must then 
inquire what particular material or subject-matter will best 
attain this aim. We must finally ask what technique of 
instruction will best use the material selected for the aim 
set forth. 

The newly conceived aim of education is social efficiency, 
which only means living the strongest, happiest and most 
useful life here and now. The attainment of this aim in- 
cludes (1) the acquisition of fruitful as contrasted with 
useless knowledge; (2) the development of right attitudes, 
interests, ideals, habits, or the attainment of a true sense of 
life values; and (3) the training of a reasonably wide range 
of skills, the creation of a capacity for control and achieve- 
ment. All the subjects we teach must present such material 
and be guided by such methods of instruction that they do 
their part toward accomplishing these aims. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. This chapter should prompt each of us to a little self-examin- 
ation on the question of the definiteness of our teaching. Suppose 
you try to write down a specific statement of the aims to be accom- 
plished through several of the branches you are teaching. 

2. Next, examine with care the material you present in the sev- 
eral subjects with the purpose of discovering whether it is adapted 
to the aim you seek through each subject. If not, where is the dif- 
ficulty, and what the remedy? 

3. Think over your methods of instruction, and decide whether 
they are as well adapted as you can make them to accomplishing the 
aim you seek through your teaching of the different subjects. If 
not, keep your mind alert throughout the text for suggestions to help 
in the improving of your methods. 

4. Contrast in your thought education as a mere accomplishment 
and education as the means to efficiency. Which is the truer ideal? 
What difference will it make in your teaching whether you hold one 
view or the other ? 



34 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

5. After studying the paragraphs on the newer definition of cul- 
ture, try formulating your own definition of culture. Remember 
that a true definition is often but a plan of action, or a goal to be 
achieved. Will you then shape your teaching to develop this type of 
culture in your pupils ? 

6. Try harmonizing the two conflicting ideals of education, 
culture and utility, and show that, under the newer definition of 
each term, the two unite in what we may call social efficiency. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE KNOWLEDGE SIDE OF EDUCATION 

WHAT does the educated person of to-day need to 
know? We have taken the ground that the aim of 
education is social efficiency, and not the training of any- 
mythical set of "faculties" nor the appropriating of any 
particular body of knowledge approved only by tradition or 
convention. 

The part played by knowledge. — It necessarily fol- 
lows, then, that the knowledge supplied through education 
must directly and in no doubtful or uncertain way lead to 
these aims. One must know his world, with the emphasis 
on his. He must know the fundamental facts that underlie 
participation in his world's work. He must know the sig- 
nificant facts governing his relations as a member of a 
family, a community, a nation. He must know the vital 
facts concerning the world of physical nature and of self. 
This is all to say that the knowledge offered the child for 
his mastery is to be selected for its concrete application to 
the problems and duties of the daily life which he is to live 
i — which he is living here and now. 

True, we do not know just what the daily life of each of 
our pupils is to be ; much less do we know in detail the spe- 
cial problems that each will meet. Can we then decide what 
phases of knowledge will be needed by the individual ? 

Education to supply the fundamental knowledge. — 
The answer to our question must be that we can not know 
in advance just what specific phases of knowledge each per- 

35 



36 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

son will most need in his social activities. Life is too great 
a complex, and the lines of knowledge too diverse for this 
to be possible; but neither is it necessary for the funda- 
mentals of education that the whole life experience shall 
be known. For what the individual needs from his school 
education is not to master all the details of the knowl- 
edge later to be demanded of him. It is rather to lay 
deep and strong the broader foundations which every per- 
son will require, no matter what his vocation or status is to 
be. With this done, and with right attitudes, interests and 
habits developed, and with skill attained in the use of one's 
powers, the details of the knowledge demanded in daily 
activities will be secured as the need arises. But this 
foundation knowledge must be vital, and must belong to the 
world of present experience, else it tends to divorce educa- 
tion from life. 

We can at least avoid Spencer's criticism that we train 
our children's minds as we clothe their bodies — in the pre- 
vailing fashion; we can refuse to teach fruitless matter 
though it be called good form to learn it. We can cease to 
furnish grounds for Flexner's claim that "the subjects com- 
monly taught, the time at which they are taught, the manner 
in which they are taught, and the amounts taught are de- 
termined by tradition." 1 We can omit from the child's edu- 
cation such phases of knowledge as may once have pos- 
sessed educational value but which are now obsolete and- 
useless. 

The fundamentals of knowledge required by those who 
would live a reasonably full life and do their part in the 
present social process may be roughly classified in certain 
broad groups: knowledge (1) of tools, or symbols; (2) of 
self; (3) of physical nature; (4) of human nature; (5) 



1 Flexner, A Modern School, p. 5. 



THE KNOWLEDGE SIDE OF EDUCATION 37 

of history and institutions ; (6) of industry, science and in- 
vention; (7) of expression; (8) of avocations. 

Knowledge of Tools, or Symbols 

Essential to all other learning is a knowledge of cer- 
tain symbols, or essential tools, and skill in their use. The 
"three R's," which once were looked on as constituting a 
fair education, are still the basis of all education. The abil- 
ity to read, write, spell and number, while no longer an ade- 
quate measure of education, is a necessary preliminary to 
all that may follow. 

Fundamentals must not be neglected. — No greater mis- 
take can be made in any system of education, either as ap- 
plied to an individual or a nation, than to slight these 
fundamentals. That we are, on the whole, failing to ground 
our children in the basic forms of knowledge, there can be 
little doubt. Every experienced teacher knows what it is 
to try to teach children the more advanced sections of a 
subject when they lack knowledge of the more elementary 
phases. Pupils often fail of the best results in history, 
geography, civics or science because they can not intelli- 
gently read the text. They are unable to solve problems in 
practical measurements in arithmetic because they do not 
know fractions. They fail in percentage problems because 
they do not know the decimal system. They can solve rather 
difficult problems from a text, especially if they know the 
"cases" under which they come, but can not work relatively 
simple and practical problems met in actual experience. 
They are at a loss in the more advanced phases of language 
study because they have not mastered the elements, and 
so on. 

It pays in any line of building to make the foundation 



38 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

strong before we attempt to rear the superstructure upon it. 
Failure to do this is probably our weakest point in elemen- 
tary education. Much saving of waste in education — waste 
in time, interest, effort, money and efficiency — could be ac- 
complished by the application of this simple principle. We 
can not emphasize too strongly that a thorough knowledge 
and ready skill in the tools of knowledge are the first requi- 
site in education. 

Fundamentals to be made second nature. — This re- 
quirement sets the aim therefore of the elementary grades. 
As the knowledge needed in these stages of development 
is being secured, a knowledge of the fundamentals must 
not be omitted. Drill and practise must go on until the 
reading, the spelling of words commonly used, writing, 
punctuating and the elementary number processes become 
automatic. Knowledge of these things must be made 
second nature, so that thought, judgment or memory are 
not consciously required, but left free to deal with mean- 
ings and values of higher order. This does not in any 
degree mean that the drill on these fundamentals shall be 
devoid of content. It does not mean that the child shall 
not be taught to think. It does not mean that his inter- 
ests shall be neglected. It only means that while taking 
care of these things, a ready and certain mastery of the 
fundamental tools will be assured. 

Knowledge of the Self 

Every person should secure through his education cer- 
tain knowledge of self. Nor is this self to be conceived as 
some mythical, intangible entity of doubtful reality and 
more or less incomprehensible qualities. By the self is 
meant first the physical organism and then the mental and 
social powers that use the brain as their machine. 



THE KNOWLEDGE SIDE OF EDUCATION 39 

Knowledge o£ the physical self. — One should under- 
stand the marvelous, delicately adjusted and complex mech- 
anism that we call the body. The laws of health and devel- 
opment should be of primary consideration. The factors 
involved in growth, strength, physical efficiency and longev- 
ity should be thoroughly comprehended. An understanding 
of the rules governing food, exercise, sleep, fatigue and rest 
should be fully within the grasp of each person. The effects 
of physical habits should be understood, and the influence 
of narcotics and stimulants upon physical efficiency, health 
and success should be a fundamental part of the education. 
When the proper time has arrived, knowledge of the mys- 
tery and laws of sex should be put into the possession of 
every youth, and particularly should this line of information 
extend to the influence of sex habits and their power for 
good or evil in the life. 

Knowledge of the mental self. — Upon the mental side 
the self is no less real and understandable, even if less tan- 
gible, than the physical. While the technical facts and laws 
of psychology are beyond the grasp and comprehension of 
a majority of those who attend the elementary school, yet 
certain of the simpler facts which relate to the mental life 
should constitute a part of the education of all children. 
They may easily come to know some of the effects of mental 
habits. They can understand the origin and influence of 
moods. They can grasp the facts involved in the develop- 
ment of disposition. They may come to know the folly and 
uselessness of worry and its crippling effect upon happiness 
and efficiency. They may be taught methods of work which 
will economize effort, nerve strain and fatigue. They may 
know the principles underlying the capacity for concentra- 
tion and realize the futility of mental work unaccompanied 
by a high degree of mental pressure. 

Knowledge of the social self. — So also with knowl- 



40 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

edge of social forms and usages. Society has developed 
certain usages which every person needs to know and obey. 
Good breeding is a commercial as well as a social asset. 
Ability to meet people easily and with grace and dignity is 
one of the surest marks of true education. Every child has 
a right to such knowledge and training, which will in part 
come from the home, but which in many cases, because of 
the limitations of the home, must be given chiefly in the 
school. 

Knowledge of Physical Nature 

Knowledge of physical nature constitutes an essential part 
of modern education. In the elementary grades this knowl- 
edge will, of course, take the form of undifferentiated sci- 
ence, or information about the immediate physical environ- 
ment, while in the high school the separate sciences will 
form distinct branches of study. 

Education to include knowledge of physical environ- 
ment.— A knowledge of the earth we live on, its rivers, 
hills, mountains, valleys and lakes, its different soils and 
climates and their products should be included in the mental 
acquisition of all intelligent persons. Information should 
be acquired as to common plant life, first of all that which 
lies nearest at hand and is daily to be met, used and appre- 
ciated. At least a general knowledge should be had of the 
chief plants supplying our food, clothing and other articles 
of comfort, necessity or luxury connected with our lives. 
No education of present times is well balanced which does 
not include some practical knowledge of the animal life of 
the earth. Here again that which is nearest at hand, either 
from the point of view of location or as to interest and im- 
portance should receive first attention. Then forms of ani- 
mal life that are farther away but which have some relation 



THE KNOWLEDGE SIDE OF EDUCATION 41 

to the life or activities of our civilization should come within 
the ken of the learner. 

The educated person will also extend his knowledge to 
include an understanding of the forces and forms of physi- 
cal energy which have to do with our world. Their laws 
should be mastered and the methods by which they are ap- 
plied to carrying on the world's work, its industries and 
activities should be understood. Finally because one is con- 
fronted by the fact (3f a vast universe extending beyond the 
realms of our own earth one should have at least some com- 
prehension of the worlds beyond our own. 

Knowledge of Human Nature 

Because every individual lives in a social medium and is 
daily and hourly in contact with human nature, a knowl- 
edge of the most fundamental qualities that enter into the 
make-up of a human being should be well understood. 

Knowledge of people. — We must constantly adjust 
ourselves to others, live with them, obey or control them, 
teach them, buy from them, sell to them, or in a thousand 
ways fit our lives to theirs. On one's ability to judge other 
people, adapt himself to them and work with them much of 
his success will depend. The great qualities which go to 
make up a fine personality, and on the other hand the nega- 
tive qualities which lead to weakness and rob one of power 
and influence should be recognized. 

Not only in this rather general and abstract fashion 
should one come to know human nature, but also from the 
study of ideal characters as found in literature and biog- 
raphy. The literary writer, unhampered by the limitations 
or weaknesses of any particular individual, is at liberty to 
endow an imaginary character with all of the graces that 
enter into human nature. On the other hand, he may also 



42 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

apply to one individual all of the vices to be found, not in 
any one person, but in many. In such way, may we catch 
a vision for our own lives, learn to shun our baser tend- 
encies. 

One should also come to know human nature through a 
study of the real historical personages presented to us in 
the descriptive pages of history and biography. In this way 
we come to know human nature in action, busied with the 
real deeds and achievements of civilization. The qualities 
of personality are not, as in literature, found in an ideal or 
imaginary setting, but actually at work as vital forces in the 
real world of action. 

Developing the sense of racial kinship. — The value and 
stimulus of such knowledge as this for the young can hardly 
be overestimated. From the study of human nature and the 
inter-relations of individuals and generations there should 
come to the youth a sense of human kinship. He should 
come to feel not only that he is a part of the present genera- 
tion with its opportunities and duties, but also a part of the 
great chain of life that began at the beginning and will go 
on until the end. Nothing could be more broadening, en- 
lightening and stimulating than this sense of racial kinship 
and achievement. 

Knowledge of Social Institutions 

Each of us lives and moves and has his being in a social 
medium. We are members of a group of social institutions, 
each with its own aims, ideals and methods of procedure. 
Indeed the life of the race can largely be defined in terms 
of social institutions which peoples and nations have 
evolved. The place of a people or nation in history can 
be judged from its institutions. It is a part of education, 



THE KNOWLEDGE SIDE OF EDUCATION 43 

therefore, to know the origin of each of the great social 
institutions and something of its history and development. 

Knowledge of the home. — Every youth should have 
some definite information as to the nature and meaning of 
the family and home, and comprehend the part played by 
the family unit both in history and in the economic and 
social organizations of the present. The value and sacred- 
ness of the home relations should be fully realized. This 
knowledge should result in greater love for the home, 
greater loyalty to its relations, and pride in its good name. 

Knowledge of the state. — Likewise should one come 
to know the meaning of the state. He should grasp the sig- 
nificance of government and its function in securing equal 
justice and opportunity for all under its sway. The mean- 
ing of government should extend not only to the negative 
functions of restraint and control, but to the positive func- 
tion of carrying out great projects such as education and 
many lines of public service for the good of society. The 
meaning of citizenship and its requirements should grow 
out of this fundamental information and the sentiment of 
patriotism become well developed. In such study should 
the sense of personal citizenship arise, and the realization 
of civic responsibility have its grounding. 

Knowledge of religion. — The church as one of the 
leading social institutions should likewise come in for con- 
sideration in present-day education. This does not mean 
that the individual should be educated in narrow sectarian 
fashion, but rather should grow to realize the part that re- 
ligion and the church have played in social and individual 
development. In similar fashion should the school be 
brought to the attention of the youth who constitute its 
present-day membership. One who has come to see the 
price paid in sacrifice, toil and suffering for the earlier 



44 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT' 

schools, and the immense amount of funds to-day devoted 
to education can hardly look on education and schools as 
an imposition instead of an opportunity, as not a few pupils 
of to-day do. 

Knowledge of social conventions. — Finally, as previ- 
ously mentioned, every youth should come to a knowledge 
of the social conventions, or rules, which have been devel- 
oped through the generations and to-day express the aggre- 
gate wisdom of society with reference to social behavior and 
conduct. It is not uncommon to find those who are impa- 
tient of the restraint of social conventions and look on them 
as narrow, old-fashioned and unnecessary in this later day. 
All such will be rendered more patient and more wise by 
being brought to a realization that social conventions ex- 
press the collective judgment of society, and are not the 
invention or petty whim of any one individual or generation. 

Once the individual has grasped this fact he will hardly 
feel like setting up his own judgment against the wisdom of 
society accumulated through the years. He will understand 
that social standing requires obedience to the customs and 
rules dictated by good breeding, whether in the home, in 
social groups, or in the association of the sexes with each 
other. 

Knowledge of History 

Education should include knowledge of history, local, 
national and general. It is a part of common intelligence 
to know something of the historical development of one's 
locality, state and nation. Not only should we know the 
political and military history of our people, but also the 
social and industrial achievements of our nation. We should 
be able to define our chief national ideals and know how 
our nation differs from other nations. We should realize 



THE KNOWLEDGE SIDE OF EDUCATION 45 

something of the debt we owe to society because of the toil, 
sacrifice and suffering of preceding generations who have 
left us the heritage of civilization and opportunity which 
we enjoy. We should come to see the working of cause 
and effect in the production of wars and other crises, know 
the great problems which now confront our country, and be 
able to apply every lesson of the past to their solution. 

Scope of historical knowledge. — Our historical knowl- 
edge should also extend to other nations and times, else we 
shall have little historical perspective and therefore be un- 
able to judge social values aright. The origin, growth and 
particular type of civilization characterizing each of the 
great nations should be comprehended. We should know 
their national, social and political ideals, together with how 
these have come about. Such great concepts as freedom, 
democracy, universal education and religious liberty should 
be studied and the individual come to know the course of 
the development of each of these great ideals in the life of 
peoples, and the part they play in our present national ideal. 

Knowledge of Industry, Science and Invention 

The industrial and commercial activities form so large a 
part of life and are so fundamental to all human welfare 
and progress that a knowledge of their processes should 
form an important part of education. The industries which 
supply our clothing, give us our food, and build and furnish 
our homes especially appeal to the interest of children. 
Here also is an excellent place to lay the foundation for a 
later understanding of the structure and relationships of 
society in the broader sense. 

Knowledge of vocations. — Man was made to work, 
and finds his greatest satisfaction and highest development 
only in some vocation. A knowledge, therefore, of the 



46 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

fundamental requirements of vocational activities rightly 
constitutes part of every person's education. It is true that 
technical vocational knowledge and skill can be supplied 
only in special schools, but a general education may include 
the fundamentals. 

Further, each individual should have such a knowledge of 
the requirements placed on one who enters a given vocation 
that he will know whether this vocation is adapted to his 
tastes and aptitudes. He should also know something of 
the rewards to be expected, the problems, difficulties and 
disappointments to be met in different vocations. His 
knowledge should thereby guide in the selection of his 
vocation. 

Knowing the world of invention and discovery. — It 
goes without saying that in this day of inventions and in- 
dustrial development education will include a broad, even 
if general, knowledge of the scientific inventions and funda- 
mental discoveries that are so constantly being made and 
which so vitally affect human welfare and progress. The 
material side of our civilization is not only wonderful, but 
so closely allied to all spiritual and ideal values, and bears 
such relation to the comfort and luxury of present-day life 
that it should form a very real and practical part of any 
complete education. 

Knowledge of Forms of Expression 

No education can be counted complete or even well ad- 
vanced which does not possess some accurate and usable 
knowledge of the various forms of expression. The world 
little knows and nothing cares concerning the great thoughts 
one may think, the great emotions that may stir his soul, or 
the high ideals that may throb in his heart if he is unable 



THE KNOWLEDGE SIDE OF EDUCATION 47, 

i 

to express these in some concrete fashion understood by 
others. Such great forms of expression, therefore, as litera- 
ture, art, music, the speech arts and dramatic representation 
should enter into present-day education. 

Chief forms of expression to be learned. — One should 
become familiar with the literary devices of plot, character, 
rhythm, rhyme, etc., and thereby have a foundation of 
knowledge from which to judge literary forms and struc- 
ture. In pictorial and plastic art one should come to know 
the methods employed for bringing out the meaning of the 
picture or statue. He should understand something of com- 
position, light and detail as used in painting and thereby 
have a foundation from which to judge and appreciate 
artistic productions. Similarly in music, the use of melody, 
harmony and the like, employed to express various themes 
should be comprehended. No less should such knowledge 
extend to the speech arts, and should include the principles 
of successful speaking, whether in conversation or in more 
formal public address. In dramatic representation the 
value of the different forms of expression should be simi- 
larly understood. 

Knowledge of Avocations 

Finally, a knowledge of avocations is as necessary as a; 
knowledge of vocations. It is as difficult an art to employ 
one's leisure well as to use his work time fruitfully. Every 
person, therefore, should know something of the function 
of recreation and the various avocatipns. He should know 
that life can not be all work any more than it can be all 
play. He should learn how to play, and should be able from 
this knowledge to participate in the common games and 
amusements of his social group. This is necessary, not only 



48 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

i . ... 

as it affects one's social standing and contributes his part to 

the social situation, but also is demanded for our own 
mental, physical and moral good. 

Need for avocational knowledge. — As our national 
wealth grows and the conditions of life become increasingly 
easier, the problem of the use of leisure time becomes more 
and more important. The eight-hour working day leaves a 
number of hours out of the twenty-four to be disposed of. 
To use them fruitfully, so as to build up the physical and 
mental life by worthy recreations, rather than to weaken it 
by improper forms of amusement, is a problem not yet fully 
mastered. Public parks, municipal recreation centers and 
school playgrounds are praiseworthy attempts to aid in the 
solution of the problem. But the school must also do its 
part in training to interest and participation in the better 
forms of play, amusements and recreation. For avocations 
are an art, and need to be learned, like vocations. It is en- 
couraging to note that the movement is growing to give avo- 
cations a definite place in the curriculum as has already 
been done in the leading countries of Europe. 

The classification which has been followed in outlining the 
fields of knowledge required in present-day education is in- 
complete and no doubt logically imperfect. It will serve, how- 
ever, to emphasize the scope of knowledge required for living 
in the twentieth-century civilization, and especially in a great 
democracy. Such knowledge as that suggested is the birth- 
right of all. It does not belong to the few, nor to any par- 
ticular occupation. It is the heritage of humanity, and the 
minimum equipment that should be given our children. 

It is the business of education to deliver these forms of 
knowledge to the child. It is therefore the business of each 
separate subject in the curriculum to contribute its share. 
No one branch can do all, nor may any fail to do a part. 



THE KNOWLEDGE SIDE OF EDUCATION 49 

Here again then we meet the demand already stated that 
the teacher shall determine just what phases of this knowl- 
edge his particular subject or subjects shall contribute. 
Once this is discovered it will constitute the knowledge 
aim of his material, and advance him one important step in 
the formulation of good method in his field. 

Summarizing the point of view of the chapter we shall, 
then, look on knowledge as one of the fundamental and 
essential aims of education. But this knowledge must be 
such that it relates to the real and genuine world of the 
learner. Its value shall not be judged by how long it has 
been a part of the school curriculum, nor by its reputation 
in the world of learning, but by its fitness to aid the child 
in meeting actual problems in his life now and in the future. 
Knowledge to be fruitful must help us to understand and 
master our world. This knowledge can be classified for the 
purposes of our discussion in a few great groups, each of 
which is necessary to an education in our times. The 
teacher, as the first step in developing a method for his sub- 
ject, must decide what phases of the required knowledge is 
to be contributed by this or that particular branch. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Think over the knowledge that you have mastered in the 
course of your education, and estimate the proportion of it which 
seems to have little or no relation to your present needs for knowl- 
edge. 

2. In the light of your own experience estimate the value of the 
knowledge in various subjects which you are teaching your pupils. 
Do you see any necessity for trying to modify or eliminate some of 
it so that what the child is asked to master will be more fruitful? 

3. Judging from your own experience or observation, do the 
children have a sufficiently thorough knowledge of the fundamentals 
of number, reading and so on? If not, where has been the trouble 
and what is the remedy ? 



50 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

4. In how far do you judge that the knowledge of physiology 
which you are teaching is bearing fruit in better physical living on 
the part of your pupils? In how far is the knowledge of language 
you teach resulting in better speech? Apply similar tests to the 
other subjects. 

5. First decide whether you agree that all normal children of 
to-day should have reasonable grounding in the phases of knowl- 
edge listed in the chapter. Then carefully estimate the extent to 
which the curriculum of your school, taught as at present, will put 
this knowledge into their possession. If there is any point of dis- 
crepancy, suggest what remedy is needed. 




CHAPTER V 

TRAINING TO RIGHT ATTITUDES 

NOWLEDGE is power? — Only when combined with 
right attitudes. The term attitudes is here used, for 
want of a better one, to stand for that group of interests, 
tastes, standards, ideals, enthusiasms, ambitions, desires, 
aversions, appreciations, etc., which serve as the ground- 
work of our lives. Knowledge serves as the rudder that 
guides the ship, but attitudes supply most of the motive 
force. Through knowledge one comes to understand his 
world ; through his attitudes he builds up his scale of values, 
determines what he considers worth while, and sets his goals 
for achievement. While attitudes depend in no small de- 
gree on the type of knowledge out of which they arise, they 
are in no sense secondary to knowledge as an aim in edu- 
cation. 

Attitude no less important than knowledge. — Educa- 
tion has waited all too long for the recognition of this phase 
of training. We have readily granted that in order to be 
educated one must know the facts about his world ; but we 
have not so clearly realized that he must also be able to 
evaluate these facts. We have shaped our instruction to 
train in the intellectual grasp and comprehension of our 
material and social environment, but we have offered rela- 
tively little help in determining the direction of interests, 
the cultivating of enthusiasms, or the shaping of ideals. We 
have exercised the reason and developed the powers of logic 
in dealing with intellectual problems, but we have given 
scant attention to the fostering of worthy lines of ambitions 
and desires. We have fully realized that one must learn to 

51 



52 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

think, but have in no small degree overlooked the fact that 
one must also establish a set of personal standards, habits, 
tastes and inclinations. It is as much an art, and altogether 
as necessary, to train one's wants — physical, mental, moral 
and social — as to train his powers of thought and supply 
him with a fund of information. 

The outcome of attitude. — In short, the surest test of 
the value of one's education is the help it renders in develop- 
ing a true philosophy of life. It is this life attitude that 
determines what use one shall make of his knowledge and 
powers. Wrong attitudes toward society and social justice 
make the law-breaker, the oppressor and the criminal. 
Wrong attitudes toward work produce the idler, the spend- 
thrift and the snob. Wrong attitudes toward moral values 
account for much of the sin and crime with which the world 
is cursed. Unworthy interests, low standards and faulty 
ideals cheapen the personal life. Knowledge alone can not 
save from these tragedies ; knowledge is power of the right 
sort only when combined with right attitudes toward one's 
world. Trained powers set at work in wrong directions 
defeat the very purpose that society has in supporting edu- 
cation, and finally also defeat the individual in the outcome 
of his life. 

What we have called attitudes form so great a complex 
and the terms in use so overlap that any complete or logical 
classification is impossible. For our present purpose, it is 
not necessary. We shall therefore be content with discuss- 
ing a few of the more important aspects of attitude, and 
noting their relation to the aim of education. 

Standards of Value . 

Because life is so rich in its opportunities and the lines of 
action, and achievement so multiform, it is highly essential 



TRAINING TO RIGHT ATTITUDES 53 

that every individual should early develop an accurate sense 
of values. Because so many directions are open in which 
one may expend his energies he must come to know what is 
chiefly worth while as the ends of his ambition and the goal 
of his efforts. Because there are so many things to which 
one may give his time, his strength and his enthusiasm, 
grave waste of these priceless treasures is the rule instead 
of the exception. 

Waste from wrong attitudes*— How many of us there 
are who follow ambitions that, once attained, are found to 
be barren and empty ! How many devote precious time and 
energy to causes that lead nowhere! How many pursue 
promising will-o'-the-wisps that entice us but to bogs of 
disappointment and disillusionment! How many choose 
baubles that burst as we grasp them, and strive for what we 
believe to be pearls of great price only to find that they turn 
to paste when we have paid for them ! 

Only a trained sense of values will save us from such ex- 
periences. This is to say that part of one's education and 
development is to arrive at what we have called a philosophy 
of life, a point of view from which to look out on the world 
of values and select the most significant for attainment. It 
is only this that will save from waste and misuse of time, 
energy and opportunity, if not indeed from tragic failure 
and disaster. 

While it is not the problem of this treatment to select a 
complete philosophy of life, yet a few of the leading values 
may be set forth. 

The worth of happiness. — The value of happiness as 
one of the fundamental aims of life can not be too strongly 
held in mind in the teaching of youth. True, there are many 
other aims than that of securing personal happiness, and 
yet those who have had the most experience in life and 
achievement agree that the individual who has attained true 



54 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

happiness has probably while reaching this accomplishment 
also done most for the world. 

It is a common mistake to confuse the means of happi- 
ness with the thing itself. There are many who become so 
busy with making a living, or with the securing of the neces- 
sary conditions to a broad life, as to forget to live in the 
broadest, richest and happiest sense. 

What happiness consists in. — By happiness is not 
meant freedom from responsibility, care or even sorrow. 
Happiness at its best consists in no small degree in the deep- 
seated satisfaction found in the unrestricted use of one's 
powers toward the achievement of ends that seem abun- 
dantly worth while. None are more unhappy than those 
who lack a worthy vocation, or who discover, too late, that 
they have undertaken work unsuited to their capacities or 
that, in itself, is not worth while. Education should there- 
fore help one to find himself, to judge his powers, and select 
an occupation worthy their endeavor. 

The conditions of happiness. — In order to achieve a life 
of happiness one must refuse to get set in a treadmill routine. 
He must be able to extract joy from his tasks, and look 
on each day's life as an adventure iff experience, capable 
of yielding satisfaction and zest. He must be able to enjoy 
the simple pleasures that come to all — the common associa- 
tions with friends and family, the life and events of his 
time, books, nature, and his own thoughts, hopes and de- 
sires. Above all, he must not put a mortgage on his happi- 
ness by the setting up of bad habits, sowing the seeds of ill 
health, or any other tendency that will later lead to regret, 
remorse, or dissatisfaction with living. 

The value of service. — A second of the great ends to 
be sought in our scale of values and hence in education, 
is the ideal of service. This is called the social century. In 
spite of war we are coming to see that each of us is bound 



TRAINING TO RIGHT ATTITUDES 55 

to all, and that no life is complete without the help of other 
lives. The conviction is steadily growing that the highest 
welfare of the individual lies in the success and happiness 
of society as a whole. 

It therefore becomes not only the duty but the privilege 
of every person to render his quotum of service toward the 
common good, and toward the making of all as successful and 
happy as possible. It is the universal experience that per- 
sonal happiness is most truly and certainly achieved only as 
the individual finds opportunity for the use of his powers in 
such social service. This means that man is created on too 
broad lines to be satisfied or happy under conditions of utter 
selfishness, or with the means of happiness and well-being 
lacking to others whom he might help. 

Expressing the service ideal more concretely, education 
should not be looked on by its possessor as a means of 
escaping effort or labor, but of accomplishing a larger and 
higher service while attaining personal success. The end 
to be sought through trained abilities should not be the ex- 
ploiting of the efforts of those less fortunate in ability or 
training, but the filling of a larger place in the scheme of the 
world's work and its play. Labor should not be looked on 
as an evil to be endured by those who can not escape its 
necessity, but as the worthy and natural expression of 
human life at its best. Any system of education that fails 
to inculcate this attitude has failed at one of its most critical 
points. 

Growth as an ideal.- — Another of the great values that 
should enter into every youth's life philosophy is the ap- 
preciation of self-development or growth. The manner of 
man's origin we know not, but his nature seems in some 
way tinctured with divinity. His capacities are therefore 
practically boundless both in number and quality. They are 
also capable of almost unlimited development. Every indi- 



56 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

vidual at the beginning has the seeds of personality planted 
in his being through heredity. These seeds of power must 
be cultivated and nurtured through environment and train- 
ing if they are to come to their full fruitage. Tragic indeed 
the fate of any person possessed of all but infinite capacities 
if he shall because of failure in his education go through 
life with these abilities undeveloped. 

Education should reveal to the individual something of 
the inherent greatness and capacity of human nature, and 
create a hunger for growth and self -development. It should 
set the cultivation of the self as one of the great ends of 
life. 

The value of hopefulness.— High in one's scale of 
values should stand the culture of optimism and hopeful- 
ness. A pessimistic, cynical attitude never goes with am- 
bition. Pessimism cripples effort, lowers achievement, de- 
stroys happiness and contradicts a sound philosophy of life 
at every point. The molders of history and makers of civili- 
zation have been men and women possessed of a sponta- 
neous hopefulness and deep belief in the value and outcome 
of some great idea or cause. The chronic doubter and 
faultfinder who merely complains and never hopefully con- 
structs a new order which he believes to be better than 
what he criticizes is but a drag on progress. One's educa- 
tion should therefore lead him to believe in life and the 
future. It should strengthen his faith in the final victory 
of right, and make him a champion for its achievement. 

Caring for the opinion of others.— One must also come 
to place a true value on public opinion and esteem. To do 
this without manifesting the cringing attitude of the time- 
server and sycophant requires a trained social judgment 
which may well be cultivated in the school. Opportunities 
for this type of training are abundantly found both in the 



TRAINING TO RIGHT ATTITUDES 57 

subjects of the curriculum and in the social organization of 
the school. 

Cultivation of Interests and Tastes 

Education finds one of its chief functions in broadening, 
enriching and elevating the whole level of the child's inter- 
ests. No phase of the mental life is more susceptible to 
training than our interests, which constantly respond to the 
material upon which they are fed. The character of the 
interests developed is highly important because interest con- 
stitutes the chief motive force of life. Interest is always 
dynamic, driving to effort and achievement, while the ab- 
sence of interest leaves the individual crippled for want of 
ambition and initiative. 

The shaping of interests. — It is true that interests are 
appealed to and shaped by many influences outside of the 
school and its work. But it is also true that the school, both 
from its associations and from the studies of the curriculum, 
exerts a powerful influence upon the molding of the child's 
interests. 

During the elementary school age new interests are aris- 
ing, especially such as look out on various lines of occupa- 
tion and achievement. During the high-school age the 
wider interests in people and in vocations are taking form. 
The notions and whims of childhood are then being replaced 
by a more serious attitude toward life and success, and the 
individual is making plans for the lines later to be taken by 
his life. 

The desideratum at this stage is vitally to connect lines 
of school interest and study with the concrete interests of 
the life outside the school. Incalculable loss and waste 
occur because of divorcement of school interests from the 



58 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

outside occupational and social interests. The effects of 
this divorcement are seen in indifference toward the school, 
dropping out from attendance, and lack of attainment in 
lines of study which seem to have no direct bearing on con- 
crete affairs. Further, wherever this divorcement obtains, 
the knowledge and skill acquired fail to function in the ac- 
tual guidance and activity of experience, and the best edu- 
cational results are therefore lost. 

Grounding the intellectual interests. — During the 
school age is the time to cultivate the intellectual interests 
and tastes which finally give character and quality to the 
whole of the mental life. One whose intellectual interests 
remain narrow is in some degree shut out from the great 
world about him. He whose interests attach to trivial or 
unworthy lines of thought and are not appealed to by the 
more serious and important matters of his time lacks some- 
thing of full development. Such a person will of necessity 
be limited in his recognition of opportunity and obligation. 

One of the most promising opportunities of the school is, 
therefore, the cultivation of the intellectual interests. No 
more important question can be asked concerning any sub- 
ject of the curriculum than whether it tends to develop 
what may be called a continuing interest. It is to be feared 
that interest in some subjects of the curriculum, whatever 
may have been its quality during the pursuit of the subject, 
often fails to carry over into the practical life outside of 
the school after the study is completed. Who of us has not 
pursued some line of study to the point of passing a satis- 
factory or even a superior examination, perhaps even win- 
ning a coveted prize, only to find our interest in this field 
suddenly fall away when the last requirement of the course 
had been met. On the other hand, we have followed certain 
other lines of study, the concepts and lessons of which we 
constantly meet in our life outside the school. It is mani- 



TRAINING TO RIGHT ATTITUDES 59 

festly the business of education to develop an abiding 
foundation of intellectual interests and concepts which will 
extend beyond the school, and carry on into the practical 
every-day life. 

The value of social interests. — The range of our social 
interests, the interests that center in our fellow men, should 
not be less broad than the intellectual. Indeed the social 
interests are but a section of the intellectual interests spe- 
cialized to a particular use. While we find the stimuli to 
social interests very plentiful in the workaday world outside 
the school, yet every person needs the definite broadening 
and balancing of his social interests which can come alone 
from the study of peoples — that is to say, a study of his- 
tory, social institutions, literature, art and similar lines. 

The school should bring to the mind of every child his 
relationship to other generations and times, and also his re- 
lation to his own generation. Whoever has not felt the 
inspiration arising from the thought of such relationship 
has lost one of the greatest motive forces to personal de- 
velopment and achievement. 

The vocational interests. — The school should have a 
large part in shaping and rendering intelligent the voca- 
tional interests. Every normal child is looking forward to 
the time when he can really take a part in the world's work. 
He eagerly longs to try his hand at doing something. All 
his impulses are pushing him on toward participation and 
achievement in some line of occupation, and no small part 
of his mental life is taken up with dreaming about the con- 
flicts and successes that will come to him. 

The child has a right, while at this stage, to the informa- 
tion and training that will bring these blind impulses to 
intelligent planning for the future vocation. The time is 
now ripe for vocational guidance. Such guidance, at least 
in the earlier stages, should first of all consist, as suggested 



- 



60 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

above, in gaining a knowledge of the nature of the different 
vocations — the work they require, the difficulties they present, 
the rewards they offer, the type of ability they demand. In 
this way the youth will be helped in the critical process of 
"finding himself, " and he will in some degree be saved from 
selecting his vocation on mere whim, or from the thoughtless 
influence of family or friends who lack the trained judg- 
ment to render wise advice. Above all is this the time to 
ground an unshakable belief in the dignity and obligation 
of labor, and a contempt for a life of idleness and parasitic 
preying on society even if fortune may make it possible to 
live without working. 

Ideals of Conduct and Achievement 

Youth is the time of ideals. It is therefore the business 
of education to contribute to the formation of the highest 
type of ideals of personal conduct and achievement. It is 
important that the child shall learn to admire the right types 
of character, and that his standards of success and achieve- 
ment shall be gleaned from worthy sources. It is important 
that he shall come to look on all admirable qualities discov- 
ered in others with sincere appreciation, and that he shall 
turn from low or base qualities with aversion and disgust. 

Personal standards. — Education, therefore, should 
serve to quicken the sense of value for all that is highest, 
best and most worthy in character and personality. It 
should place a premium on standards of personal honesty 
in every line of relationship. Growing out of this point of 
view will come a sense of the worth of dependability of 
character, and the necessity of cultivating traits which will 
bring confidence and esteem from others. 

There should also arise in this connection a feeling of the 
value of personal courage, whether this courage be of the 



TRAINING TO RIGHT ATTITUDES 61 

physical sort that enables one to withstand hardships, dan- 
ger or suffering in the accomplishment of duty; whether 
it be of the intellectual sort that enables one to step out 
upon new platforms of thought, willing to accept truth and 
its consequences wherever found; or whether it be of the 
moral kind, enabling one to stand secure in the presence of 
evil and temptation. It is equally necessary that the moral 
attitude be made to include such a sense of personal respon- 
sibility for achievement that all low aims shall become 
ignoble and failure to do one's part in society not only im- 
moral, but a crime against humanity. 

Such ideals, well grounded, can not but serve to quicken 
the attitude toward ambition, rendering one impatient of 
inaction or idleness. They will stimulate the individual to 
prepare for his vocation and to rise high in it. They will 
tend to develop a power of initiative and place a premium 
on originality and independence of effort. The results of 
such ambitions and standards are certain to show in the 
spirit of enterprise and to class their possessor among the 
efficient of his generation. 

Determining moral standards. — Moral standards are 
also open to guidance and training. The school is rich in 
opportunities to shape the moral standards and develop 
ideals of conduct. It is indeed no great kindness to the 
individual and certainly none to society, to train the in- 
tellectual power and acumen, if we leave at the same time 
the moral motive undeveloped, or permit such a twist in the 
moral standards as may later cause the individual to prey 
upon society, either as a parasite or as a criminal. The 
school should, therefore, be jealous of its opportunity to 
mold the moral ideal and should certainly allow no part of 
the school associations, lessons, examinations or other fac- 
tors to do anything whatever toward the lowering of moral 
standards. 



62 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

It is to be doubted whether the school has been reason- 
ably successful in inculcating moral ideals. True, the school 
has a difficult problem to meet in the teaching of moral 
standards which the child often sees constantly violated in 
the wider community outside the school. Yet the very 
existence of low moral ideals in social, business or political 
affairs makes it all the more imperative that the school shall 
seek to ground the young in the fundamentals of morality. 

The morals of the school. — The school itself, we must 
admit, can not claim exemption from typical immoralities 
that are sure to some degree to carry over into later life. 
There is no small amount of evasion, trickery and "bluffing" 
in recitations. Cheating in examinations is all too common 
and is often looked on lightly by the pupils. Unfairness in 
athletic games is frequently condoned if skilful enough to 
get past the referee without detection. Appropriating 
books, pencils and the like from the school supply or other 
pupils is not called stealing. As a matter of fact school 
honesty and morality is commonly put on a different plane 
from business honesty and morality. It is not necessary to 
argue that this is all wrong, debasing to the character of 
youth, and that, where such standards "obtain, there the 
school has its most important problem unsolved. 

The Cultivation of Habits 

Not less important as a part of education is the cultiva- 
tion of personal habits. Habit is not only one of the most 
important factors in one's development, but is a chief end 
of all growth and education. Here as in other lines of de- 
velopment the world outside the school plays its part, but 
because of the long time devoted to school attendance, and 
because of the constantly repeated program of certain re- 



TRAINING TO RIGHT ATTITUDES 63 

quirements, recitations and other exercises, the school is 
especially fruitful in habit forming. 

Habit forming in school. — There is probably no place 
better calculated to develop the habit of achievement than 
the school room with its requirements and tasks. Here 
children learn, if their education progresses aright, to meet 
the hard and disagreeable, and not to give way in the face 
of difficulties. Through the attitude of his instructors and 
his schoolmates the child learns the penalty in loss of social 
esteem that comes to the "quitter," or to the one who shows 
a "yellow streak," in meeting hardships or measuring up to 
responsibilities. The rroblems of the curriculum should 
teach habits of persistence and steadiness of purpose. Here 
should be cultivated habits cf punctuality, not only from be- 
ing at school at certain required hours, but from meeting the 
recitation, library or laboratory requirements within the 
schedule set for them. Here the individual should learn to 
work under the stress of pressure and necessity, coming to 
see that his own personal desires and comforts, even, must 
sometimes stand aside before the dictates of necessity as set 
by a program of school exercises. 

Important habits to make sure of. — The work of the 
school should cultivate the habit of open-mindedness, will- 
ingness to receive and welcome truth, and the ability to pass 
critical judgment on all problems confronting the individual. 
The anchorage of such habits cultivated in the school should 
keep one from being swept away by every current of public 
opinion, and from following madly the leadership of fad- 
dists and propagandists. 

The associations of the school, perhaps even more than 
its studies, should lead to habits of emotional control. Par- 
ticularly during the high-school age, emotional stress aris- 
ing from the mingling of large masses of young people to- 



< 



64 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

gether, and especially from associations with the opposite 
sex, offers good opportunities for cultivating the emotional 
habits. Education should in no degree seek to weaken or 
crush out any of the desirable emotions, but should con- 
stantly lead in the direction of emotional balance and con- 
trol. It is not that one should have eradicated from his 
nature the capacity for wrong or excess, not that he should 
be so patient or mild as never to hate, not that he is in 
danger of loving too deeply, but that in all these situations 
he should have cultivated such a mastery and control as 
that harmony and balance may result His education 
should work to this end. 

Tastes and Appreciations 

Cultivated tastes and the capacity for fine appreciations 
are one of the highest aims of education. One whose taste 
in reading leads only to the cheaply thrilling story, whose 
taste in music is satisfied with rag-time, whose taste in pic- 
tures reaches only to the colored Sunday supplement, has 
missed much of the best and most satisfying experience that 
can enter life. Inability to appreciate and enjoy a beautiful 
sunset, to take happiness and satisfaction from birds and 
flowers and running brooks, to respond with a thrill to the 
fine and heroic in the common lives about us, deprives us 
of half the joy of living and leaves our own natures deficient 
in the finer qualities. 

How tastes are developed. — Such deficiencies as these 
are not cured by lamenting over the depraved tastes of our 
times — they are probably fully as good as those of any earlier 
time. The fact is that taste and appreciation grow by what 
they feed on. The remedy for low tastes is therefore not 
lectures on taste, but better material to feed on. The cure 
for cheap debasing reading is better stories adapted to the 



TRAINING TO RIGHT ATTITUDES 65 

age and interests of the reader. The cure for rag-time and 
the colored comics is better music and pictures adapted to 
the grasp and appreciation of the child. The same prin- 
ciple will hold for the whole range of tastes and apprecia- 
tions, and it is one of the chief problems of the school to 
supply the material required for the various stages of de- 
velopment. 

Summarizing our discussion, we must conclude that the 
group of qualities we have called attitudes, interests, etc., 
is one of the primary aims of education. Each subject of 
the curriculum must do its share toward developing right 
attitudes toward the essential values of life and its activities. 
To finish the school with trained intellectual powers, but 
with narrow or perverted interests, with low standards of 
morals, with the spirit of artistry and achievement lacking, 
or with an indifferent set of habits formed, is to confess 
defeat and lost purpose in education. Cultivated tastes and 
ready appreciation for things that are worth while are evi- 
dence of true culture and attainment. Not alone what we 
know about our world, but how we react to it determines 
the wbrth of our education. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Do you know any pupil who has a bad attitude toward the 
school, or teacher, or toward some particular study? If so, how 
does this attitude affect his work and progress? What is the 
remedy? 

2. Suppose a class, say in literature, has secured a reasonable 
range of information from their study, but has not developed an 
interest in reading more of the same kind of material. How would 
you rank the success of the course? Apply the same test to his- 
tory, science, etc. What conclusions do you draw as to attitude 
being one of the chief considerations in teaching any subject? 

3. Think your pupils over individually, and see whether you can 



66 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

classify them on the basis of their ideals and ambitions for success 
and achievement. How can you, through your teaching, improve 
their outlook on life? 

4. What is the remedy for an unsatisfactory attitude toward 
class-room honesty? Toward sportsmanship? Toward truthful- 
ness? Toward business honesty? Toward work? The cure for 
snobbishness ? 

5. Try making a list of the bad habits, physical, mental, social 
and moral, which you discover among your pupils. Then seek a 
remedy for each class of bad habits. Have you any more important 
problem in your teaching than this? 



CHAPTER VI 



DEVELOPING SKILLS 




NOWLEDGE, interests and ideals are never an end 
in themselves. Their function is to influence action. 
Skill in doing is the ultimate end of education. It is how 
we act, how we respond to this situation or that, how we 
conduct ourselves under one set of circumstances or another 
that determines our efficiency. Deeds, performance, achieve- 
ment are the real points of contact with life. 

Skills the end of knowledge and attitudes. — The skills 
aim of education seeks to take the knowledge, powers, in- 
terests and ideals and set them at work in actual affairs. 
This aim undertakes to remedy the all too-prevalent defect 
in our education that permits so great a divorcement as com- 
monly exists between knowledge and its use, between power 
and accomplishment, between theory and practise, between 
learning and efficiency. The skills aim takes the point of 
view that knowledge is power only when applied to concrete 
affairs, and when put at work in meeting the genuine prob- 
lems and duties encountered in the day's life and its tasks. 

We must admit that education has lamentably failed at 
this point in the past. For much of our learning has stopped 
very far short of skills. We have not harnessed our knowl- 
edge and set it at work. We have all along held to a more 
or less instinctive belief that learning is desirable and will 
surely lead to better and more successful living. We have 
felt that ignorance is dangerous and unprofitable. And this 
is no doubt quite true. But we have nevertheless done little 

67> 



68 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

to insure that education shall really carry through to the 
point where most of our knowledge becomes efficiency in 
doing — to the point of skill. We have not always made 
certain that what we teach in the school shall play a vital 
and significant part in shaping life and determining success 
outside the school. 

Falling short of attaining skills. — For example, how 
many of our children have better eyes, teeth, stomachs, 
lungs, more efficient and beautiful bodies, and longer and 
happier lives for the physiology they have studied? We 
teach them much about the anatomy of their bodies, about 
the chemistry of their tissues and about the physiological 
processes involved in circulation and digestion — but we do 
not always insure that they shall live better for having 
studied physiology. In how far do the pupils we teach 
speak more fluently and correctly and write with greater 
precision, ease and enjoyment for the grammar lessons they 
have learned? We teach them to analyze, diagram, parse, 
decline, and all the rest, but it is to be feared that not nearly 
all of this recondite knowledge becomes effective in actual 
speech. 

In how far does the history we teach really lead to love 
of country and true patriotism? We have our children 
learn of "settlements," wars, dates, political parties, presi- 
dents, etc. But none would dare to say that most of this 
knowledge influences action at such points of experience as 
test love of country and devotion to duty. And so with all 
the rest of our school subjects. That they all do help in 
some degree in the directions indicated is no doubt true. 
But that the results are what they should be, or that they 
have been the product of definite planning and wise educa- 
tional foresight that definitely seeks such an end can hardly 
be claimed. 



DEVELOPING SKILLS 69 

A change coming. — As was shown in an earlier chap- 
ter, however, education is growing conscious of its function 
as a very real and definite agency in human affairs. It is 
coming to realize that its purpose is not accomplished until 
there is an immediate and sure connection set up between 
what is learned in school and what is done or accomplished 
in the life outside 'the school. We are coming to see that 
what we teach is futile and incomplete until it eventuates 
in conduct and action — in skills. 

How Skills Are Obtained 

As already implied the term skills is here used for the 
tendency and power to carry one's knowledge and attitudes 
over into action. This definition is very broad, and allows 
(1) for that narrower range of skills which can be made 
automatic by repetition and practise, and also (2) for the 
more general and complex skills which constantly require 
thought, reasoning, adjustment. Typical of the narrower 
skills are speech, bodily poise and carriage, manual dex- 
terity, the simpler memory associations, etc. Typical of the 
broader skills are one's ability to carry the truths he learns 
in arithmetic over to his practical affairs and set them at 
work there ; his power to make his study of language .show 
in the speech he daily uses ; his tendency to make the ideals, 
standards and ambitions developed by his study in school 
become an active reconstructing influence in his practical 
life and affairs. 

Skills based on practise and application. — Skill in any 
line is an art; it develops gradually by practise and repeti- 
tion. We are skilled only when the act or the tendency to 
its performance has become second nature, and its perform- 
ance is effective in accomplishing the purpose in view. Acts 



70 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

which must be guided by conscious decision and purpose 
are labored, uncertain and inefficient. But let the act grow 
by intelligent practise until it becomes habit, and skill is sure 
to emerge in the process. 

It is this simple fact of psychology that explains the dif- 
ference between mere learning and efficiency. Learning is 
a necessary guide to action if the skill which develops is to 
be intelligent and useful. But learning alone, as already 
shown, never spells efficiency; it must first be carried 
through to skilful performance. As a simple illustration: 
the boy who has an ambition to learn how to pitch a curved 
ball does not spend all his time studying the resolution of 
forces and the resistance of air to spherical bodies revolving 
on an axis as they are projected through space. Certain 
knowledge of this sort is desirable if not necessary to one 
who would master the art of curving balls. But along with 
his learning our boy must not forget to practise at pitching 
curves. His knowledge of the principles involved will guide 
his pitching, but he must pitch. 

Knowledge only opens the way to skill. — So with any 
other form of learning. We teach our children number in 
order that they may be able to make the practical compu- 
tations needed daily in the common occupations; then our 
instruction must furnish practise in the numerical compu- 
tations to be met in these occupations. We teach language 
that our children may attain greater fluency, ease and ef- 
fectiveness in the use of good speech; then our instruction 
must give abundant practise in those language forms that 
will lead to such ends. In short it is not knowledge of num- 
ber that we seek, but skill in numbering; not knowledge of 
language forms, but skill in speech. And skill, we repeat, 
requires application and practise. We must see that knowl- 
edge carries over into performance. 



DEVELOPING SKILLS 71 



Physical Skills 

By physical skills is not meant mere dexterity of hand or 
some extraordinary ability in games or handiwork. The 
concept rather involves the mastery and adaptation of the 
whole body, including its growth, health, carriage, habits 
and the training of the hand to its purposes. 

Skill in maintaining health. — How much working ef- 
ficiency is destroyed, how much happiness lost, and how 
many lives shortened through the lack of skill in judging 
and caring for our bodies! There can be no more impor- 
tant part of education than that which results in more 
hygienic eating and drinking, wiser expenditure of energy 
in work and recreation, better care of skin, teeth, eyes and 
other organs, the securing of better air to breathe, and in 
general the setting up of those habits of living that favor 
physical efficiency and length of life. There is little doubt 
that effective instruction directed to such ends could extend 
the average span of life by a number of years, relieve much 
of the misery caused by sickness, and greatly enhance work- 
ing efficiency. 

Skill in physical bearing. — Physical poise, carriage and 
dignity of bearing are also an essential part of education. 
They are in a large measure developed outside the school, 
and yet the finer aspects of such skills almost invariably 
depend on instruction and conscious direction. Physical 
training that results in mere athletic prowess while neglect- 
ing formative and corrective training for the whole body has 
missed the mark. The star quarter-back who when off the 
gridiron ambles and shuffles in his gait, or the record track 
man who is ungainly and unimpressive in his physical bear- 
ing, is a standing accusation against the system of physical 



72 CLA&S-EOOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

education in his school. Careless carriage, stooped shoul- 
ders, awkward attitudes and general inefficiency of bearing 
are not only adverse to health, but are a real drawback to 
success in the business and social world. They should be 
eliminated through education. 

Manual skills. — Manual skill, or the attainment of pro- 
ficiency with the hand, is a highly desirable phase of train- 
ing. Man owes his predominance over the lower animals 
not less to the possession of a hand than to his superior 
mind. It is the hand which most fully and perfectly car- 
ries out the mind's dictates, and which is in the last analysis 
responsible for our civilization and progress. Not only does 
skill in the use of the hand yield the possessor satisfaction, 
but there is hardly a vocation in which such skill will not 
prove of service. A highly specialized manual skill lays the 
foundation for certain vocations, such as the industrial, the 
technological, or that of the artist. 

Skill in speech. — An important part of physical control 
is the skill that has to do with speech. This involves a 
proper use of the voice, good articulation and enunciation, 
readiness and fluency. Relatively few people are as effective 
speakers, either in conversation or more- formal speech, as 
they might be. Whatever may be one's relations in life a 
high degree of efficiency in speech will increase his chances 
for success and make him more efficient in his associations 
with other people. 

Skill in play. — The cultivation of one's physical skill 
extends to ability in plays and games. The English in large 
part excel Americans in the degree to which amateur ability 
in avocations has spread to include a large proportion of the 
population among all classes. We are a nation devoted to 
sports, but are too easily satisfied by employing experts to 
play before us while we sit idly by as spectators, enjoying 
the contest as a mere spectacle without participating in the 



DEVELOPING SKILLS 73 

play ourselves. Not only life and happiness, but physical 
efficiency is in no small degree dependent on the cultivation 
of play interests and play skill. 

Mental Skills 

It is one thing to have a well-disposed mind adequately 
stored with knowledge, and quite another thing to be able 
to use this knowledge readily and with skill when required. 
There are many adults as well as children who "know but 
can't tell," who "understand but can't explain," who com- 
prehend the point at issue but can not make it clear to others. 

Ability to think under stress. — In a large proportion of 
the problems to be met in the course of practical affairs, 
one must reason and decide under stress. He must be able 
to "think on his feet," and in the presence of people. He 
must be capable of marshaling facts, weighing evidence and 
reaching conclusions on the spur of the moment. He must 
have the power to rise above prejudice and the influence 
of opinion and decide things for himself on their merits. 
He must possess initiative, and learn to rely upon and have 
confidence in his own judgment. He must develop habits 
and standards of thoroughness in thinking, and not be satis- 
fied to jump to a conclusion. 

One of the chief functions of education is to develop this 
mental skill. Not what one takes in, but the extent to which 
he is able to command his mental powers is the final measure 
of his education. To this end, the knowledge mastered 
must be of the right kind, and must be so organized that it 
will readily apply to genuine problems. A high degree of 
mental alertness must be cultivated, and the ability de- 
veloped to concentrate all available power on whatever mat- 
ter is in hand. Mind- wandering and the habit of mental 
dawdling and dreaming must be cured. Memory must be- 



74 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

come not only accurate, but ready, not failing at important 
points, nor hesitating until too late for its material to be of 
use. Imagination must be vivid, and capable of constructive 
activity in many fields. The capacity for observation must 
be made strong to see, hear and apprehend quickly and 
accurately in our physical and social world. 

Securing emotional control. — Mental skill also extends 
to the field of the emotions. One must develop control ; 
under emotional stress. He needs to learn how to "be angry 
and sin not," to fear and not give way to panic, to hate with- 
out losing his sense of justice. Strong emotional power is 
as necessary to a successful life as strong intellectual power, 
but to be safe it must be balanced by an adequate degree of 
restraint and control. 

Social Skills 

The cultivation of skills must also carry over into the 
realm of social relations. By social skills are meant those 
social qualities and arts by which others come to know us, 
judge us and give us our rating as members of our social 
group. 

Sympathy and appreciation need to be aroused and quick- 
ened. The capacity to enter into the thoughts and feelings 
of others must be developed. No one lives to himself but 
each is in constant association with others whom he must 
come to know, judge and understand daily and hourly as 
they live, work, play together. Much of success and ef- 
ficiency depends on the skill thus to adjust ourselves to those 
about us. 

Working toward social skills. — No small part of the 
pleasure and outcome of life depend on this social adapta- 
bility. Children are normally self-centered and devoid of 
tact. Such attitudes must give way to altruism, courteous 



DEVELOPING SKILLS 75 

behavior, and care for the feelings of others. The quarrel- 
someness that characterizes certain stages of childhood must 
yield to more harmonious and adaptable qualities. Impu- 
dence and flippancy must change to attitudes of respect and 
seriousness. Loyalty and sportsmanship must be grounded, 
and many other social graces cultivated. 

Social ease and poise are also to be acquired. Not to be 
able to meet other people easily, freely and without embar- 
rassment is to fall far short of the end of education and 
development. It is true that the cultivation of this ability 
does not depend exclusively on the school. The school as- 
sociations however, and in some degree the curriculum, will 
tend to cultivate social ability at points not touched upon in 
the associations outside the school. Education should lead 
to a respect for the social conventions and skill in their use. 
Any education which leaves the youth either uninformed or 
unskilled in what may be called the smaller niceties of be- 
havior in society and social gatherings has in some degree 
failed in its duty to the individual. 

Skill in leadership. — Qualities of leadership should also 
be stimulated through education. The world needs fol- 
lowers as well as leaders, but there is small danger of 
overdeveloping the more solid and fundamental qualities 
which make for leadership. Every youth should become 
ambitious to exert influence among his fellows, and should 
in some degree become skilled in the use of his social powers 
to this end. 

Moral Skills 

No greater need exists in our civilization to-day than the 
cultivation of moral skills and control. A nation or a civili- 
zation is in the end no stronger than its morals — -not its 
moral theories, but its moral practise. For, lacking essential 



76 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

morality of life and conduct, nothing else of value can long 
survive among a people or in an individual. 

Difficulty in developing moral control. — There is grave 
reason to doubt whether we are as successful in training the 
moral skills in the school as we ought to be. True, it is 
easier to train to intellectual skill than to moral. For the 
practise of morality often carries one against the current 
of inclination and desire. It demands resistance, self-denial, 
restraint, all of which is disagreeable. The result is that 
few of us do as well as we know. Paul was but expressing 
an all-too-common experience when he said, "The good that 
I would I do not ; but the evil which I would not, that I do." 
Our moral theory always outruns our moral practise. 

The school, as suggested in an earlier chapter, confronts 
a very difficult problem in moral training, owing to many 
influences outside the school which tend to contradict the 
highest moral ideals. Yet the school itself is not without 
fault. Surely the work and life of the school should be so 
organized that moral conduct is the natural and easy thing, 
and that immoral conduct will not commonly net an advan- 
tage to the one who practises it. 

Standards of moral action. — To be on safe ground, the 
individual must find himself able to be honest when to be 
honest costs ; to be just when injustice would yield personal 
advantage ; to be loyal to friend or worthy cause when loy- 
alty means sacrifice; to tell the truth when lying would be 
altogether easier; to be clean when impurity appears in 
inviting form; to be courteous when anger or resentment 
stirs the blood; to be true to an ideal when the immediate 
result is pain or suffering. It is the business of the school, 
in common with other agencies which serve to educate, to 
train in the practise as zvell as in the theory of these moral 
virtues. 

Power to meet the disagreeable. — Moral skill has also 



DEVELOPING SKILLS 77 

another point of application, — that of enabling us to meet 
and triumph over the disagreeable. It is easy enough to 
secure cooperation and high effort in all directions which 
are pleasant and which lead to agreeable experiences; but 
it is often hard to find those who are able to stand steady 
when they meet the hard and unpleasant. Those who are 
ready to champion a just but unpopular cause are far less 
numerous than those who are ready to go with the crowd. 
Here as in other lines the relations outside the school 
have an important bearing on the ability in question, yet the 
life of the school, together with the lessons of the curricu- 
lum should be made to have a most important effect on the 
moral sturdiness and fiber of the character. Any system of 
education which has failed to take into account the necessity 
for cultivating moral skills, or which has failed to work out 
a program giving daily practise to the moral qualities in the 
school room has in so far proved itself a failure. 

Reviewing our discussion, we have seen that any training 
in knowledge, or shaping of interests and attitudes, is incom- 
plete which does not seek to arrive at practical skills as their 
aim. Life finally expresses itself in terms of action, con- 
duct, achievement. It is the business of education to carry 
its training through to this end. This point of view there- 
fore sets the problem for each branch of the curriculum, 
and for every teacher — to make the subject-matter and the 
process of learning it eventuate in some concrete and neces- 
sary form of skill in the learner. Knowledge, from this 
standpoint, can never become an end in itself, but only a 
guide to intelligent skills. Interests, ideals, ambitions do 
not exist for their own sake, but ultimately as incentives to 
right action. 

From the last three chapters we are justified in conclud- 
ing that no educational aim is complete, no educational pro- 



78 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

cedure effective, that does not take into account these three 
great purposes : ( 1 ) the gaining of fruitful knowledge to 
guide in practical experience, (2) the grounding of right 
attitudes, interests and ideals to motivate conduct, and (3) 
the practical putting of our knowledge, interests and ideals 
at work in daily conduct leading to the skills required for 
successful living. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Think over your own education and study, seeking to discover 
places at which the knowledge you learned did not function, i. e., 
did not make you do differently in any way you can discover for 
having learned it. What was lacking? Was the knowledge itself at 
fault, or was there a failure to carry it over into use? 

2. Think ever the subjects you are teaching, and ask yourself 
about each of them : Just what skills is this branch cultivating in 
my pupils, how are they thinking differently or doing differently for 
what I am teaching them? If you can not be sure, is this a sugges- 
tion that you should make your teaching more definite? 

3. Study the postures of your pupils as they sit or stand or walk. 
Do they need to cultivate physical skills in these directions ? Do you 
find some who, through embarrassment or fear, lose command of 
their mental powers when they most need them? Some who lack 
control of their anger, jealousy, affection? If so, how can you help 
them to develop the missing skills? 

4. Have you some pupils who are shy and ill at ease when in the 
company of others? Some who have uncouth manners and who 
lack social tact? If so, can you devise ways to help train to the 
skills required? 

5. Have you certain pupils who are not safe in the presence of 
temptations to cheat, lie, steal? If so, is it from a lack of knowing 
the wrong of these things, or a matter of low standards, or a failure 
to practise moral resistance, i. e., to develop moral skills? How can 
you help such ones ? 



CHAPTER VII 

THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF EDUCATION 

IN the preceding discussion we have seen how method 
rests on a fourfold foundation — first the aim, second the 
material, third the organization, and fourth the presentation. 
We now come to the problem of the material, or the subject- 
matter of education. 

Present Readjustments of Subject-Maiter 

What, then, shall one study as subject-matter? What 
shall we teach our children? — Or does it especially matter? 
Is it true, as one college professor advised his long-sufTcring 
class : "When you have found the matter that seems to you 
most difficult, dry and useless; when you have discovered 
material that has no point of contact with your interest and 
experience, but which must be mastered by sheer force of 
will— this is the subject-matter to which you should give 
your days and nights of study if you would become schol- 
ars !" Is such a dreary way the true road to education ? 
Can such an empty grind develop the powers, enrich the 
life, and fit one into his place in the busy world ? Because 
"there is exercise for the jaws in chewing even sole-leather" 
shall we feed our children on such dessicated mental pabu- 
lum? Or shall we feed their minds, nourish their powers, 
and stimulate their interest with the rich food of vital and 
valuable subject-matter? 

New emphasis on subject-matter. — The fact that such 
questions as these are arising with increasing insistence 

79 



SO CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 1 

and frequency is indicative of a new and marked movement 
in education. The content of the curriculum, the subject- 
matter of education, is at present undergoing a most rigid 
examination. We are setting earnestly at work to recon- 
struct the curriculum of our schools. To this end we are 
passing the subjects in review with reference to their value 
as educational material. Every branch is being subjected 
to scrutiny for the purpose of discovering its right to the 
time and effort of the child. 

The old order is giving way and a new day is at hand. 
We are now coming to see that what we put into our schools 
as educational material finally comes out in life, character 
and efficiency. History has shown us that what a nation 
feeds the minds of its youth through the medium of its 
schools at last comes to dominate its social and national 
ideals. Growing out of such considerations as these we are 
becoming convinced that education time is too precious and 
the interests at stake too great to squander time on obsolete 
or useless material. 

Two factors responsible for recent changes. — Two 
chief factors have recently led to the present critical exami- 
nation and revision of the subject-matter of education. 
These are, (1) the breakdown of the disciplinary concep- 
tion of education, and (2) the wonderful increase in recent 
decades of new material seeking admission into the cur- 
riculum. 

There is no thought nor necessity of entering here on an 
extended discussion of the merits or shortcomings of formal 
discipline as an end in education. We are chiefly concerned 
in our present question with what has actually occurred or 
is now taking place in connection with the disciplinary aim 
and its relation to the present-day educational subject- 
matter found in our school curriculum. 

The disciplinary concept of education.— Advocates of 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF EDUCATION 81 

the disciplinary theory of education have pinned their faith 
to the "discipline" of so-called mental "faculties," through 
their exercise upon hard study. Not the content to be 
mastered but the fact of the mastery itself is chiefly de- 
pended on for the educational value achieved. The dis- 
ciplinarians have been fond of using the analogy of the 
body's need of exercise in support of their argument for 
mere mental effort as the means by which the ends of 
education are chiefly to be attained. They like to say that 
"mental powers grow just as physical powers develop: by 
their use." Therefore, urge these theorists, "train the mind 
by severe exercise and it will naturally follow that you will 
see it grow and develop." 

The opponents of this view, however, suggest that those 
who employ such an analogy should not forget that back of 
bodily exercise must be the assimilation of suitable and 
nutritious food if strength and development are to come 
from the physical exercise. In like manner they say that 
along with the use of mental powers the mind must be fed 
on fruitful, nourishing subject-matter, such as will stimulate 
its powers, arouse its interest and call forth its effort. 
Changing the figure, the mind comes to its full strength 
and power, not by buffeting intellectual punching bags nor 
by fighting mental "men of straw," but by grappling with 
vital problems full of the zest of life and action. 

The breaking down of the disciplinary concept. — With- 
out going further into the discussion at this point, we may 
at least state one patent fact: the disciplinary concept of 
education has broken down. Not that the old doctrine of 
discipline does not still retain a strong hold on education; 
it does, and probably yet dominates at least one-half of the 
curriculum. But the wedge has entered, and the structure 
of educational theory, so laboriously erected by John Locke 
and his followers, is finding its foundation undermined. 



82 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

It may be worth while briefly to state the principal factors 
whose influences are discrediting the disciplinary view and 
forcing a reconstruction of the present-day curriculum: 

First, experimental psychology has shown that, even if 
training may in some degree be carried over from one ability 
to a related power, the waste by this round-about method is 
nevertheless inexcusably great. To found a system of edu- 
cation on such a concept is a senseless squandering of the 
priceless treasure of time and educational opportunity. 
Psychology has further shown that better training, better 
discipline, if you will, of the mental powers can be had 
from the study of educational material that calls forth the 
interest and enthusiasm of the learner than from any empty 
grind on useless material. 

True, the disciplinarian tells us that where interest and 
enthusiasm are lacking there the will is being trained 
through study. But Doctor Dewey has shown in his bril- 
liant essay on Interest and the Will that the will is no such 
isolated power that it can thus operate independently of the 
other processes of the mind. The best development of the 
will, like the best development of the thought powers, comes 
only when the whole self gives its assent to the work in 
hand. And the whole self is brought into action only when 
interest calls. Nor does interest kindle from contact with 
dead and formal material that has no vital relation to the 
genuine problems which alone grow out of actual affairs. 
True discipline results only from mastery of what the mind 
works on ; and any full or adequate mastery of disciplinary 
subjects in our schools is, as Flexner argues, 1 the exception 
rather than the rule. 

Second, the great social force that we call the public is 
making itself heard on the question of the curriculum. 



1 Flexner, A Modern School, page 6. 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF EDUCATION 83 

Partly through the teachings of psychology and the science 
of education made known by means of the press and plat- 
form, and partly by an innate common sense of its own, the 
public has lost faith in the old disciplinary education. This 
public is now demanding a curriculum which it believes con- 
tains a larger proportion of vital and useful material related 
to the needs and problems of actual experience. 

While society is not always conscious of the processes by 
which it arrives at its conclusions, it nevertheless does form 
judgments. Sooner or later it makes itself heard, and its 
voice must be obeyed. And it is undoubtedly well, on the 
whole, that this should be so. For, though we of the edu- 
cational guild may be loath to admit it, most of the great 
educational reforms have come from the people, or from 
such leaders as have lived close enough to the people, to 
sense their half-formed thought and formulate their imper- 
fectly felt ideals. Surely none who are in touch with the 
world of affairs can doubt that there is at present a growing 
social demand for more fruitful educational material in our 
schools. 

The rapid increase of educational material. — The other 
great factor which is forcing a revision of the subject-matter 
in our curriculum at the present day, the increase of avail- 
able educational material, will not require extended com- 
ment. It will be remembered that the dream of Bacon and 
Comenius and others of their time was a pansophic scheme 
of education — the student was to learn all there was to 
know. At that time well-trained minds could seriously 
consider the possibility of expecting one individual to mas- 
ter the whole field of human knowledge. 

While undoubtedly such an ideal for education was 
always impossible, yet it was not until well on in the last 
century that investigation, discovery and general progress 



84 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

in human knowledge resulted in such an increase in avail- 
able material as to make it possible greatly to enrich the 
school curriculum. It is about a century since Harvard 
added geography to the list of its entrance subjects. The 
various material sciences entered the field one by one and 
knocked at the schoolhouse door, asking to be let in. Along 
came history, which has since been divided into many fields, 
civil government of the state and nation, political economy 
and the elements of sociology. The modern languages have 
entered a plea for recognition and have taken rank with the 
ancient languages, which originally dominated the field. 
Nature study, music and art presented their claims and were 
added to the course of study. And now come the vocational 
group, domestic science, manual training, agriculture and 
other subdivisions without number, clamoring for a place. 
So rich is our supply of educational subject-matter in this 
day that our great problem is not, as in Bacon's time, how 
we shall master it all, but how we shall make from it the 
best selection for our school curriculum. 

The overcrowded curriculum. — This problem has be- 
come acute and it presents many perplexing difficulties. 
Upon its wise solution depends much of the future success 
of our schools. The curriculum of the elementary school is 
full, pressed down and running over without any further 
additions. It contains now too much matter to be success- 
fully mastered by the pupils or well taught by the teachers. 
No longer starved for want of enough material to put into 
the curriculum, our schools are surfeited to repletion, if 
indeed not to nausea, with more than can be assimilated. 
Something must give way. Additions from this time on 
mean subtractions. The old subjects can no longer merely 
"shove over" to make room for the new. As the new fights 
for a place the old will be obliged to contend for its position. 
The process of "enriching" the curriculum must have for 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF EDUCATION 85 

its twin the process of eliminating the useless and obsolete 
subject-matter not suited to the present aims and require- 
ments of education. 

Directions taken by the present reconstruction. — The 
reconstructions now going on in the course of study are 
proceeding in two main directions : ( 1 ) The displacing from 
a dominant position at the head of the high curriculum of 
the old disciplinary standbys, the ancient languages and 
mathematics, and substituting for them a variety of more 
concrete subjects; and (2) a thoroughgoing reorganization 
within the different subjects themselves, both in the ele- 
mentary school and the high school, with the purpose of 
dropping out such material as can not show a direct rela- 
tion to some very immediate educational value. 

The first of these movements has found expression in the 
introduction of elective subjects and parallel elective courses 
of study in secondary schools. Higher institutions have 
modified their requirements to meet these changes in the 
lower schools. Many leading colleges now admit with no 
ancient language, and a very moderate mathematics require- 
ment. An increasing number of these institutions grant the 
Bachelor of Arts degree upon graduation with no Latin or 
Greek and no mathematics beyond solid geometry. 

The second of the movements mentioned has been slower 
in getting under way than the first, but bids fair to be no 
less far-reaching and important. The work of revising and 
enriching the elementary curriculum so well begun by Pro- 
fessor John Dewey, Colonel Parker and others of their 
school, has borne much good fruit. University schools of 
education have been earnestly at work seeking to relieve the 
overcrowded and ail-too- fruitless curriculum without losing 
from it elements of value. Many administrators, teachers 
and students of education are skilfully insisting that arith- 
metic, grammar, geography and other elementary subjects 



86 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

shall have the dead and useless material dropped from them, 
that the vital material may be more fully mastered. The 
National Education Association and various state associa- 
tions have appointed committees to study the curriculum, 
and several valuable reports have been issued recommend- 
ing the elimination of useless material. Unquestionably, 
great and significant changes in the material of education 
within the accepted subjects of our schools are still ahead, 

Subject-Matter Determined by dim 

What are the principles that should guide in the selection 
of subject-matter? How may we know whether the cur- 
riculum we teach or administer needs further enrichment 
or elimination? How are we to judge what mental pabulum 
should be fed the child and what excluded from his educa- 
tional dietary. On what scientific basis can we evolve a 
balanced ration for the mind? And how is this related to 
our problem of method ? 

We may enter on this section of our discussion from the 
fundamental proposition already stated, that the content, or 
subject-matter of instruction, must be determined by and be 
adapted to the aim sought. 

This statement is to be taken very literally. The prin- 
ciple may be difficult of application at certain points, but of 
its truth and importance there can be no question. To deny 
its validity is to say that an end may be sought without 
reference to the means employed for the attainment of that 
end, or that a goal may be reached without any care in se- 
lecting the road which leads to the goal. All of which is of 
course futile and foolish. 

Determining the material by the aim.— Let us ap- 
proach the question somewhat more concretely. Let us 
for the purpose of illustration, for the moment take our 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF EDUCATION 87, 

position with those who subscribe to the disciplinary theory 
of education. Let us conceive that the primary aim of edu- 
cation is to "train the mental powers" and not to gain con- 
cretely useful knowledge or develop any particular attitudes, 
or skills. Let us believe that hard study, even if distasteful 
and compelled by stern authority, is more important than 
just what material one studies upon. — What then shall we 
choose for our subject-matter? 

In answering, let us apply the principle with which we 
started; the subject-matter must fit the aim. The aim is 
hard application, logical sequences, exact, as well as exact- 
ing, tasks, with no great care as to the content. We shall 
therefore select as the basis for the curriculum such studies 
as will fulfil these requirements. They must be difficult 
enough to compel effort, and rigidly enough organized to 
give sequence and sustained continuity to the work required. 
All other values give way to these. The concrete or ap- 
plied value of the material is not the determining factor. 

Subject-matter as determined by the disciplinary aim. 
— It is this point of view that has made the foreign lan- 
guages, and especially Latin and Greek, the core of the dis- 
ciplinary high-school curriculum. Throughout the first 
several years of their study their literary content is ob- 
scured by their linguistic demands. Grammatical relations 
are always difficult, and therefore test the powers. Such 
linguistic relations are reasonably exact, and hence require 
fine shades of discrimination. They are Organized into a 
wonderfully complete logical system, in which part fits to 
part to construct the marvelous mechanism that we call a 
language and it demands effort to master such, a system. 

The languages. — If education is conceived as resulting 
from putting forth so much effort for its own sake, then 
certainly the various conjugations and declensions, the end- 
less rules and their exceptions, the cases, moods and tenses, 



88 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

the difficulties of translation and composition — all these 
supply the ideal material for attaining our aim. It will not 
matter that the ancient or modern civilizations may be ap- 
proached more easily and their spirit entered into more com- 
pletely through the medium of one's mother tongue; for 
hardness and difficulty are precisely what we seek in order 
to "train" the effort. It will not matter that the relation of 
the foreign language to one's own may be arrived at more 
simply and in less time by another method than that of lor\g- 
continued translation or much study of the grammar of 
the foreign language ; the aim is not simplicity and economy 
of time, but difficult requirement to discipline the powers. 

Mathematics. — The same principles apply in the case 
of the abstract phases of mathematics. If, for example, 
arithmetic is to be taught chiefly as a mental discipline rather 
than for ready efficiency in the use of numbers, then we 
shall devote the larger part of the arithmetic time to the 
solution of problems in unnecessarily difficult analysis rather 
than to drill on the fundamental operations or to practise 
on problems such as arise in the every-day life. If we are 
controlled by the disciplinary point of view we shall give 
much time to the mastery and application of algebraic for- 
mulas rather than to the mathematics of business and the 
household. 

For not the knowledge and the skill required in common 
experience, but the effects of the effort expended will be the 
measure of the value attained. Indeed it is the relative 
lack of content, the exactness of logical organization, and 
the supposed difficulty of mastery that have made mathe- 
matics take rank with the languages in the disciplinary cur- 
riculum for generations. 

Making even the sciences serve the disciplinary aim. — 
Yet the disciplinary aim of education may find its material 
outside the field of language or mathematics — and does. 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF EDUCATION 89 

Even the material sciences may be so treated as to afford a 
minimum of content for a maximum of effort expended in 
their mastery. Let us suppose, for example, that we wish, 
not primarily to give the child concrete knowledge of nature 
as he meets it from day to day in his common life, but seek 
rather through the study of science to "train the mental 
'faculties/ " We shall then not start with that part of the 
physical world that is close at hand and can be seen, touched, 
used and handled ; for this is too easy and lacks logical ar- 
rangement. On the contrary, we shall start with the dis- 
tant, the abstract, the logically organized ; we shall first teach 
the "exact," the "pure" sciences. 

More specifically, if we are teaching the child botany, we 
shall not, if we are guided by the disciplinary aim, introduce 
him to the great world of growing things all about, but to a 
few rather uncommon specimens of plants. These he will 
"analyze," and run down in a plant "Key." He will classify 
them, label them, and perhaps press them, and preserve 
them in an herbarium. Of the commonplace flowers and 
plants of his daily environment, and more especially of the 
useful ones, he will learn little or nothing ; for such knowl- 
edge would lack rigid classification; it would have content 
value, and might turn out to possess "utility" ; and what 
we are seeking is "discipline." 

In similar fashion, under the disciplinary aim we shall 
teach for geography, not what lies nearest at hand, but the 
distant and unreal, the small or unusual — a great mass of 
information lacking practical importance, but requiring 
much effort in its mastery. In physiology we shall teach the 
minutiae of anatomy, and the intricate but hidden physio- 
logical processes, but omit or neglect the fundamental laws 
of health and longevity. And these things are precisely 
what, under the disciplinary aim, we have been doing in 
all too many of our schools. 



90 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

» 

Subject-matter as determined by the social aim. — But 
suppose we refuse to subscribe to the disciplinary aim of 
education. Suppose we insist that all this type of education 
we have been describing misses the mark, and that education 
must result in useful knowledge as measured by the day's 
needs and its problems. Suppose we insist that right atti- 
tudes, interests, ideals and tastes are of prime importance. 
Suppose we demand that practical skills shall be trained. 
What then shall we say about the subject-matter? What 
then shall we teach the child ? — We can only say then as we 
said in the former case : The subject-matter must fit the aim. 

If, for example, we agree that a mastery of the "tools" of 
knowledge is of first importance to the child, if we believe 
that certain fundamentals in reading, language, number, 
writing and spelling should early be made automatic and 
certain, then we must teach the kind of material that zvill 
secure these results instead of other results. We must not 
put our time on abstractions, meaningless definitions or 
empty verbal forms, but on the content that will yield the 
desired skill. The things that are needed are the things 
that must be taught. The skill that is sought must be ob- 
tained through drill in the responses required. 

Material for English. — This is to say that the child 
will learn to read his mother tongue by much practise in 
reading, both silent and oral. This reading will be vital, 
stimulating and on matter suited to the interest and capacity. 
The child will learn to write and punctuate by much writing 
and punctuating, and not by the mere learning of rules. 
Furthermore, the writing and punctuating will be on such 
matter as the child has ready to express and is interested in 
expressing. It will not deal with themes foreign to his 
knowledge and interest and concerning which he has noth- 
ing to say except under the compulsion of the school room. 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF EDUCATION 91 

His own work, his play, his lessons — the real experience of 
the day's life will supply the themes for his writing. 

In similar fashion, spelling will be learned, not from a 
spelling book containing from eight to ten thousand words, 
as is the case with the average spelling text of to-day, but 
from the smaller list of words which actually constitute the 
vocabulary of the child in the grades. Drill and practise 
will be had on these with special attention to the ones likely 
to be misspelled, until their spelling is automatic and secure. 

Number material.— The fundamentals of number will 
not be learned through difficult analytical processes beyond 
the grasp of the child, nor by the teaching of complicated 
problems never to be met outside the walls of the school 
room. Difficult and complex fractions with impossible de- 
nominators, and obsolete tables and measures no longer em- 
ployed in business or industry will not be allowed to claim 
time and effort. We shall rather depend on plentiful drill 
on the fundamental operations of subtraction, addition, mul- 
tiplication and division to make these skills automatic and 
trustworthy. We shall give abundant practise on concrete, 
sensible problems daily arising in connection with natural 
interests and activities, and by such exercises will make 
number a vital, interesting and useful part of the daily 
experience. 

The same principles will apply in mastering all funda- 
mentals required as instruments in the learning of other sub- 
jects or in the common experiences of the day's life. One 
of the most necessary problems in education is to discover 
the things that are fundamental in the training of our chil- 
dren and then make sure that these fundamentals are mas- 
tered so completely that their use requires no hesitancy or 
deliberation, and that the skill and certainty of mastery are 
secure. 



92 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Content of other subjects. — In more advanced subjects 
we must proceed from the same point of view. If, for 
example, we believe that a knowledge of the body and the 
laws of health is the first aim in the teaching of physiology 
and hygiene, we shall then select those phases of physiology 
and hygiene that will result in the particular knowledge de- 
sired. We shall not begin with the names of the bones, the 
classification of tissues, and the intricate physiological and 
chemical processes of digestion and assimilation. We shall, 
rather, deal with the practical and concrete material that 
relates to the aim we seek. 

If we conclude that the study of science should result in 
a knowledge of those phases of nature that most constantly 
touch our lives and affect our interests, then we shall find 
the first and most important material for science study in 
the immediate environment of the child and not in the more 
distant laws and principles underlying scientific study. If 
we affirm that a love for reading and the enjoyment of good 
literature are more to be desired than an intimate knowledge 
of literary structure and the laws of literary criticism, then 
we shall emphasize chiefly in our teaching of literature, not 
the canons of literary criticism, but the factors that will lead 
to appreciation and enjoyment. We shall make the material 
fit the aim. 

The principle involved. — But further illustrations of 
the principle involved are not needed. It is obvious that if 
we would make our teaching fruitful we must first of all 
have a definite aim, and then select as subject-matter such 
content as will realize the aim sought. The problem of se- 
lecting the subject-matter is partly one of administration, 
in the determining of subjects and text-books for use in the 
course of study. It is also partly a question for the indi- 
vidual teacher, who has certain latitude in the selection or 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF EDUCATION 93 

rejection of material within a given text and the choice of 
supplementary matter. 

Distribution of Subject-Matter According to Age, Capacity 

and Interest 

Not only must subject-matter be selected to fit the aims 
of education, it must also be adapted to the age and capacity, 
the experience and interests, of the learner. In obedience 
to this principle it must constantly be kept in mind as was 
stated in an earlier chapter, that we primarily teach pupils 
and not subject-matter. We must never forget that the 
material of the curriculum exists for the children and not 
the children for the subject-matter. 

Adapting the material to the learner. — It is wholly es- 
sential that the subject-matter be adapted to the learner. 
There is no more harmful educational folly than that of 
attempting to force upon children material too advanced for 
their stage of ability and development. It is a pedagogical 
crime to press upon the minds unready for it the logic of 
grammar or mathematics too difficult for their grasp. It is 
the grossest of educational blunders to teach to young chil- 
dren phases of subject-matter which call for close analysis 
and difficult associative processes when the brain machinery 
is not yet ready for such work. 

The waste growing out of teaching such ill-adapted mate- 
rial comes not alone from inability to master the too difficult 
subject-matter, or from failure to find immediate use for 
it in further study and learning. The waste from such 
sources is sufficiently grievous but it is far exceeded by the 
harm arising from the attitude of discouragement and dis- 
taste for study sure to accompany such methods. It can 
never be known how many promising careers have been 



94 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

wrecked by compelling unripe minds to attempt subject- 
matter too difficult, and hence devoid of meaning or the 
possibility of application. 

Material that is too difficult. — Our human nature, and 
especially child nature, is so constructed that nothing suc- 
ceeds like success. Nothing heartens and calls forth hidden 
effort like the victory of achievement and the consequent 
sense of power. On the other hand, nothing cripples effort, 
discourages ambition and reduces the amount of available 
power like continued failure and the constant feeling of 
helplessness in the presence of unmastered problems. There 
are in our schools to-day literally thousands of discouraged, 
ambitionless children, floundering in a maze of half -learned 
material, lacking all sense of victory and robbed of the initi- 
ative and endeavor that come from certainty of achieve- 
ment. True, the child must meet difficulties and exert effort 
in order to develop his powers. But the difficulties met 
must be surmountable and they must, at least a reasonable 
proportion of the time, be surmounted if development is to 
follow. 

Probably no one greater weakness can exist in an educa- 
tional system than that of constantly giving pupils either 
(1) too much subject-matter to cover, with too little drill 
and application to render it secure through mastery and use, 
or else (2) giving them matter that is too difficult, thus re- 
sulting in bewilderment, discouragement, loss of self- 
confidence and consequent failure of interest and enthusi- 
asm in education. 

Material must have point of contact with experience. — 
But not all subject-matter adapted in difficulty to the age 
and capacity of the learner is suitable educational material. 
The subject which claims the child's interest and effort must 
also be connected with his actual experiences and have im- 
mediate point of contact with his activities. While ideals 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF EDUCATION 95 

are beautiful things, there always exists an element of fal- 
lacy, especially for children, in an ideal that is too distant. 
Even the older ones of us find greater incentive in a reward, 
a necessity, or an interest that lies close at hand. The dis- 
tant reward, the far-off necessity, or the long-deferred com- 
pensation affects us but little. Much more does the child, 
who has not yet learned to exchange the present comfort or 
pleasure for a future good, require the grip of immediate 
interest such as arises from the concrete activities of vital 
experience. 

Every one has noted the enthusiasm and effectiveness 
with which the boy will master the intricate rules and re- 
quirements of a game in which he is ambitious to excel. 
The desire to enter on the construction of some coveted 
article in the manual-training shop has proved for many 
pupils a stronger incentive for the mastery of practical 
arithmetic and drawing than any compulsion that could be 
brought by the teacher. 

All this is, therefore, to say that the subject-matter of the 
curriculum should have the closest possible point of contact 
with actual experiences and needs. It should relate in the 
fullest possible measure to present interests and activities 
and not have merely a promise of future value. 

Applying the principle. — Practically applied this point 
of view reenforces that suggested in the preceding section. 
The subject-matter of language should be principally found, 
not in abstract themes or topics but slightly related to im- 
mediate interests and necessities, but rather in such activi- 
ties as the handicraft, the home enterprises, the social inter- 
ests or the play activities of the pupils. Arithmetic should 
be an instrument demanded in the solution of immediately 
present problems in agriculture and garden projects, manual 
training, home economics or other real interests in the day's 
life. Reading and literature should appeal to interests and 



96 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

enthusiasms present in the life and ready to be drawn upon. 
Geography should start with that portion of the earth's 
surface which lies nearest at hand, and most closely identi- 
fied with the learner's interest. 

Such a selection of the subject-matter as will adapt it to 
the child in place of seeking to force the child into a ready- 
made or mechanically devised system of studies is one of 
the most insistent problems in education. Its solution should 
engage the attention of all students of psychology and the 
science of education. It should occupy the thought and 
claim the ability of administrators of education everywhere. 
It should appeal to the individual teacher as one of his hard- 
est problems and greatest opportunities. 

The Selection of Subject-Matter 

In the actual practise of class-room instruction, the selec- 
tion of material presents many difficulties. A teacher may 
have a very clear aim for his subject and know the particular 
material which will accomplish the aim sought, and yet be 
hampered by a text-book (or even by a course of study!) 
whose material is but ill adapted to the purpose in view. 
With a given text-book in the hands of the pupil it is some- 
what difficult to offer a line of subject-matter differing in 
any considerable degree from that presented in the text. 
One may admit that American text-books are on the whole 
skilfully made and yet say that many texts found in our 
schools fail grievously of being in accord with our best 
aims and ideals in education. 

Text-books with unsuitable material. — For example, 
not a few of the texts in arithmetic still feature relatively 
obsolete and useless subject-matter at the expense of prac- 
tical drills and concrete problems related to the child's school 
and home activities. Many of our spelling books yet offer 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF EDUCATION 97 

from ten to fifteen thousand words for the child to master, 
whereas his writing vocabulary usually includes only about 
two to four thousand words. Many text-books in history 
feature political and military achievements far beyond social 
and industrial progress. Widely used texts in the natural 
sciences frequently emphasize theoretical problems rather 
than the concrete problems daily met in the life of the aver- 
age person. Many of the popular language books still stress 
formal grammar and linguistic puzzles instead of practise 
in the use of oral and written speech. 

This problem is to be met in two different ways. First, 
by the selection of texts, which is a matter not for the 
teacher alone but also for school superintendents and 
boards. It should be a part of our training in the field of 
education to know text-books and their structure so thor- 
oughly that we can with certainty judge their adaptability 
to the use desired of them. Then we shall not find our- 
selves at the mercy of unscrupulous agents of book houses 
whose business it is to introduce their particular text against 
all competitors, or to hold it in use when it should be dis- 
placed. 

Selecting material through stress and neglect. — But 
even admitting the limitations placed on teachers by the 
necessity of using certain texts, there is still a wide latitude 
possible to every teacher. This is to be attained through 
the stress or neglect which can be applied to the material 
found within the text, and through supplementing it by out- 
side material. It is true that some schools require of teach- 
ers that they shall cover a certain number of pages in a 
given text, page by page, within a term and fit children to 
pass an examination on this material. Where such rules are 
iron-clad unhappy indeed is the teacher who has ideals of 
his own. Every teacher who is qualified to handle a room 
should be allowed reasonable latitude in the selection of 



98 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

material, and then held responsible for results in knowledge 
and training rather than for the covering of so many pages 
of a given text. 

Where this latitude is allowed, a teacher may change the 
matter of a course vastly by ignoring unfruitful material 
found in the text and supplementing it with material now 
easily available from a hundred sources for practically every 
line of instruction found in our curriculum. It is evident 
therefore that two different teachers using the same text 
can still teach widely divergent material by making use of 
this power of selection and rejection. But in order to use 
such power wisely the teacher's aim must be clear, his 
knowledge of the field must be broad and accurate, and his 
concept of the purpose sought in the life of the child 
through his instruction must be so definite as to admit of no 
obscurity or mistake. 

Summarizing our discussion, we find that there is a new 
interest arising in the question of the best subject-matter 
for our schools. The doctrine of formal discipline is losing 
its hold. New material is asserting its claims. The cur- 
riculum is undergoing far-reaching changes. Traditional 
subjects are having to fight their place. Obsolete and use- 
less matter is being swept away. 

Two principles must guide in working out the new cur- 
riculum: First, the material must be consciously and ex- 
plicitly selected to meet the aim we set up for modern edu- 
cation. Nothing is to be admitted for its traditional value 
or because it is good form to study it. All material given 
our children to learn must be able to show a direct and con- 
crete relation to present-day needs and demands. Second, 
the subject-matter of the curriculum must be adapted to the 
age, ability and interests of the pupils. It must fit their 
minds and fit their lives. 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF EDUCATION 99 

The readjustment of material to meet these demands sets 
a problem for text-book makers in furnishing texts with the 
right material; for school authorities in selecting suitable 
text-books; and for teachers in selecting the best material 
through the use of emphasis or neglect within available texts 
and courses of study. The question of what we put into the 
curriculum is all important. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Consider the material found in the older type of text-book 
on arithmetic or grammar. How much of this matter do you esti- 
mate depends for its value on the "discipline" it may afford? Judge 
the material you are now teaching by the same test. What propor- 
tion of it has direct bearing on the real conduct and experience of 
your pupils? 

2. Just what material of that you are now teaching do you think 
should be left out, and better material substituted? Can you, by 
"stress and neglect," accomplish this in part? Are you teaching any 
texts that you think should be changed for texts presenting more 
vital material? 

3. Have you any classes or any pupils who are studying material 
that is beyond their age or grasp ? If so, can you judge whether the 
material is primarily at fault, or something in the ability or prepa- 
ration of the pupils? In either case, what should be done about it? 

4. What have you found to be the effect on the attitude and in- 
terest of the child to give him material too far beyond his grasp? 
Have you known children to quit school because of discouragement 
from such cause? Have you known teachers who orided themselves 
on the proportion of their pupils they "failed"? What is your judg- 
ment on the question ? 

5. A certain boy in a Chicago school was made over from a lag- 
gard to a leader in drawing and arithmetic by being told that he 
might begin to make in the manual-training shop a coveted piece of 
furniture when he had sufficiently mastered the computation and 
drawing required in the construction. Can you apply the psycho- 
logical principle that "motivated" his study to subjects you are 
teaching, such as language, agriculture, arithmetic, etc. ? 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 

/4FTER the selection of material come its organization 
^/j^and presentation. Thus, to recapitulate, the cycle of 
teaching method is completed — first the aim of the whole 
educational process, next the proper subject-matter for the 
attainment of the aim, then the best organization of the 
subject-matter chosen, and finally the presentation, or teach- 
ing, of this material in the recitation. The present chapter 
will consider the principles that underlie the organization of 
material for instruction. 

The place of organization in method. — By organiza- 
tion is meant the ordering and arranging of subject- 
matter for study (by the pupil) and for presentation (by 
the teacher). The problem of the right organization of 
material is hardly second in importance 'to that of the wise 
selection of the material itself. For even the richest and 
most fruitful subject-matter can be rendered all but useless 
by faulty organization. Indeed so faulty is much of the 
organization of the material of our courses of study and 
text-books that it requires very radical reorganization quite 
as much as the content needs revision. 

Two types of organization. — Subject-matter may be 
organized from two fundamentally different points of view 
— the logical and the psychological. We shall next proceed 
to an examination of these two points of view. 

100 



THE ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 101 



Logical Organisation of Material 

The most fundamental difference between the logical and 
the psychological organization of subject-matter grows out 
of the standpoint or purpose from which the organization 
proceeds. Logical organization definitely and professedly 
has the subject-matter in mind; psychological organization 
just as definitely has the learner in mind. The logical organ- 
ization of subject-matter arranges its material in divisions, 
sections, chapters, paragraphs and the like wholly in accord- 
ance with the logical demands of matter so organized. There 
is no thought of arranging the material in the easiest and 
most natural order for the purpose of its being grasped by 
the immature mind. The exigencies of the material so pre- 
dominate that the interests, aptitudes and methods of the 
learner are not taken into account. 

Logical organization, considers only the material. — The 
logical arrangement of material is the arrangement of the 
adult, the scholar, the expert, the master in his field of 
knowledge. This arrangement fits the mind which has cov- 
ered and assimilated all the material and has it firmly in its 
grasp, wholly summed up and completed. Such a mind is 
not of course concerned with the problem of learning the 
material ; the learning has, for this mind, already been ac- 
complished. The problem is simply that of taking so much 
finished matter and fitting it part to part, section to section, 
relation to relation, and system to system, making sure all 
the time that the demands of logic are fully met in the 
organization effected. 

The logical arrangement of subject-matter is essentially 
deductive. It reverses the mind's genetic mode of pro- 
cedure and begins with the most general, complete and 



102 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

« 

abstract. It offers first the rules, general principles and 
definitions as dogmatic statements. They are so many fin- 
ished bits of truths to be accepted and learned. The logical 
system then proceeds to apply these generalizations to par- 
ticular cases or individual instances. Logical organization 
encourages the acceptance of authority rather than induct- 
ively leading to a mastery of facts through investigation on 
the part of the learner. It offers information ready-made 
instead of leading the way to discovery. It forces the child 
into the methods and systems of thought of the finished 
scholar, thereby doing violence to the order of nature. 

Older texts organized on logical plan. — All the earlier 
courses of study and school texts were organized on the 
logical plan. This was not strange at a time when the child 
was still looked on as a "pocket edition" of a man, and child 
psychology not thought of as in any essential way being 
different from the psychology of adults. And the method 
of organization thus started persisted with certain modifica- 
tions until the advent of child study and genetic psychology, 
some twenty years ago. Since that time the logical method 
has been gradually giving way, until we have to-day many 
texts written from the psychological (i. e., the learner's) 
view-point. 

So firm a hold has the logical concept secured on educa- 
tional thought, however, that many publishers yet think it 
good business to advertise their elementary texts as "logical 
in arrangement." Probably more than half the texts now 
used in the elementary school are either wholly logical in 
the organization of their material, or else the organization 
is so poor a compromise between the logical and the psycho- 
logical as not to be of the highest usefulness. 

Logical organization in physiology texts. — A few con- 
crete illustrations will render more clear what is meant by 
the logical arrangement of texts. A certain elementary 



THE ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 103 

physiology, which has had wide use in the schools, has for 
its first lesson "Bones in General." The lesson opens with 
a definition of the skeleton. Then follow such topics as 
number of bones, and so on, with two figures of the human 
skeleton from which the names and locations of the bones 
are to be learned. Since bones are the "framework" of the 
body it is assumed that they must also be the foundation of 
the child's study of physiology, regardless of the fact that 
one never sees his bones and has very little to do with them ! 
A more recent and altogether better text opens with the 
question of why one gets hungry, why food is needed, when 
and what to eat, how to secure pure water and milk, etc. 
The first text organizes what is known about the anatomy 
of the human body into a perfectly logical array of facts ; 
the second considers what is the child's most natural ap- 
proach to the subject of nutrition and growth, and begins 
at that point. The first presents a logical organization ; the 
second, a psychological. 

Another "logical" elementary physiology begins with 
cells, fibers, organs, tissues, chemical elements. Nearly all 
these logically arranged texts on elementary physiology in- 
troduce the children to a study of their bodies by a frontis- 
piece or first picture of a skeleton! 

Other illustrations of logical organization. — The geog- 
raphy of the old type, built on the logical plan, started with 
a definition of the science of geography, introduced the 
child to the world as a sphere floating in space, came next 
to "grand divisions," then to continents, then to countries, 
and so on perchance finally down to the home place of the 
child himself. The psychological order, reversing this 
method of organization, would begin with the home place 
and work out to the more remote. 

The older types of language and grammar texts, organ- 
ized on a severely logical basis, started the child on the 



104 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

study of his mother tongue through parsing, declensions, 
analysis and diagramming sentences. The child's natural 
tendency to the use of speech, and his facility in securing 
correct language forms and good diction through imitation 
of worthy models were entirely neglected. Indeed a number 
of widely used language texts of the present day begin with 
definitions of language, of the sentence, of parts of speech 
or other such concepts wholly foreign and irrelevant to the 
child at this stage of his study. Others introduce the child 
almost at once to the analysis of sentences, the mysteries of 
various kinds of complements, and the vague relations of 
different types of modifiers. 

So we might go on with the other branches as well. Prac- 
tically all the subjects at one time or another had their 
text-books written from the logical point of view. Even 
so new a branch as agriculture has a number of its texts 
displaying on their early pages chemical formulas relating 
to soil analysis, food elements, the chemical composition of 
plants, etc. This plan of organization was adopted not be- 
cause the child knows chemistry at this stage or needs it in 
beginning the study of agriculture, but because the writer 
knew chemistry and wrote the text from his own point of 
view instead of the child's. 

Not material but organization at fault. — It is not to be 
understood that in condemning the logical type of text we 
are also condemning all the material or topics referred to 
in our illustrations. We are rather dealing here with the 
order, or arrangement of material and hence the time or 
stage when certain matter shall be presented. For example 
the student of physiology must finally come to know about 
cells, fibers, tissues and chemical elements. But he should 
not begin with them; they belong to the high school. He 
needs to know about the earth as a sphere floating in space, 
about the inclination of its axis and its effect on seasons, 



THE ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 105 

about continental divisions, etc. But these are not the best 
starting points for geography. He needs to know parsing, 
declensions, analysis of sentences, and parts of speech. But 
such things, instead of making a favorable start for the 
study of language, should come in at a later stage. 

Psychological Organisation of Subject-Matter 

Summing up the criticisms of the preceding section, the 
organization of subject-matter should be primarily psycho- 
logical rather than logical. This is but to say that the mind 
of the learner and not the logical relations of matter should 
dictate the order and arrangement. The mind's natural 
modes of working, and the laws of its genetic development 
instead of the relations involved in certain fields of knowl- 
edge should govern in the planning of courses of study and 
in the organizing of teaching material. 

Why use the psychological organization. — This posi- 
tion holds true because of the obvious psychological fact that 
the child's mind works best in accordance with its own inner 
laws of activity. None can doubt that any mind is less 
effective and its development hampered if fbrced out of its 
natural processes. When we compel the mental activities 
of a child to adapt themselves to the artificial arrangement 
demanded by a rigidly logical organization of material, we 
have committed a grave psychological blunder. We have 
caused a waste of time, forced the sacrifice of interest and 
compelled a reduction of efficiency. 

Generalizing the principles just stated, the point at which 
the course of study and each subject in it should begin is 
as nearly as possible at the point then reached in the child's 
life, interests and capacities. To secure successful instruc- 
tion we must establish what DuBois calls a "point of con- 
tact" in our instruction. We must make use of the child's 



106 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

readiness, curiosity and enthusiasm for investigation and 
mastery of whatever lies close to his own activities. We 
must build upon the foundation of knowledge already at- 
tained, and leave no gap between the actual life of real 
affairs, in which the child is an active participant, and what 
we undertake to teach him in the school room. 

Relation of organization to attitude and motive. — This 
point of view if successfully carried out in our teaching 
will serve to stimulate and give motive force to education 
in a way impossible under the logical organization of in- 
struction. Every teacher of experience has been impressed 
with the change in attitude, interest and effort when the 
subject-matter of a recitation has suddenly changed from 
abstract theoretical points widely separated from the ex- 
perience of the children, and attached itself to matters of 
immediate and vital interest related to the genuine expe- 
riences of home or school. 

Subject-matter appropriated in accordance with psycho- 
logical requirements also has a degree of unity and a vital 
meaning, impossible under the logical system. This is be- 
cause the mind can not easily appropriate nor can it fruit- 
fully use matter widely divorced from the real motives and 
thought processes constantly in use. This distant material, 
however well organized may be the logical system from 
which it comes, does not form an organic and logical sys- 
tem of knowledge in the mind of the child. On the contrary 
it is broken, scrappy, unrelated, and because of this fact not 
effective either as a basis for further learning or for use 
in directing present activities. The mistake is often made 
of assuming that because certain material is arranged in 
logical form it is therefore logical (i. e., a related system) 
to the child. Only when the child has been able to grasp 
the relationships does the matter take on a logical quality 
to him. 



THE ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 107 

Practical application of psychological organization. — 

The principle involved in the psychological arrangement of 
subject-matter has application (1) to the arrangement or 
sequence of subjects in the curriculum; (2) to the organiza- 
tion of the material within text-books, outlines and courses 
of study for each branch; and (3) to the mode of approach 
to each section of material or each day's lesson. 

The order of subjects in the curriculum.— The arrange- 
ment or order of subjects in the curriculum itself should 
be psychological instead of logical. This would require that 
the first subjects met by the child as he enters school should 
be those closest to his actual interests, needs and activities. 
In accordance with this requirement the earliest studies in 
the primary school should not be the abstract symbols in- 
volved in reading and number. The introductory branches 
of instruction should be founded in the social activities car- 
ried over from the home life to the school. The child's 
interest in work and play and in the things round about 
him suggests the fundamental material for the first school 
grades. In violation of this principle, however, it is still 
common in many schools to find that the greater part of 
the first two years of school are spent on learning the sym- 
bols of reading, numbers and language. The concrete ac- 
tivities and the great world of nature are relatively ignored 
in favor of the abstract and symbolic forms of knowledge. 

The first year in the high school affords a similar illus- 
tration of the violation of the psychological principle in 
arranging the course of study. In the typical high school 
the child has no branch of study carrying over from the 
elementary school to serve as a bridge, safely to conduct 
him over into his new realm of experience. On the other 
hand he is required to begin the study of algebra, the most 
abstract of mathematical subjects, the rigid grammar of 
Latin and the composition phase of the study of the mother 



108 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

tongue. Thus from one-half to three^fourths of his work 
is of such nature that it is very completely divorced from 
any previous knowledge or from any present interests and 
activities outside of the classes concerned. It lacks "point 
of contact." 

Some attempt has been made to remedy this unfavorable 
condition by introducing a combined course in mathematics 
involving concrete phases of geometry and arithmetic along 
with the algebraic symbols. Relief has also been sought 
by modifying the first year of the study of Latin so as to 
relate it more closely to English speech, and also afford more 
opportunity for the reading of Latin, with a corresponding 
reduction in the amount of technical grammar required. 
The first year of English in the high school is being changed 
to make it include a larger measure of literature and a 
smaller amount of general composition. The composition 
work itself has also been modified in the direction of mak- 
ing it correlate more directly with the other school subjects 
and with the interests of the pupils. In the same general 
direction an experiment is being made with a course in gen- 
eral science. The aim is to develop the pupil's interest and 
knowledge with reference to those aspects of the physical 
world which lie closest to him, rather than to introduce him 
at once to the more rigid and broader generalizations of 
science. 

The order of material in each subject. — The effects of 
the psychological principle applied to the subject-matter of 
the different branches have already been suggested in the 
preceding section on the logical organization of material. 
It will only be necessary here to offer a few illustrations of 
its application to the subjects of the curriculum. 

This principle applied to the subject of geography will 
mean that the child shall begin, not with the larger land 



THE ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 109 

forms, with mathematical questions concerning inclination 
of the earth's axis, or with general facts concerning the 
earth as a sphere ; but he will start with the homestead, the 
school grounds, the neighborhood, the rivers, valleys and 
hills near it, and with the products and peoples connected 
with the life and interests of the learner. From this begin- 
ning, his knowledge and interests will be led on outward 
to include finally the world and its people. 

In similar manner the child's mastery of numbers will 
not commence with definitions of notation and numeration, 
nor with abstract number combinations, nor with artificial 
problems dealing with fanciful conditions foreign to his ex- 
perience. On the other hand it will begin with the actual 
need of counting, computing and finding the numerical re- 
lations among objects met in every-day life and activity. 

Securing immediate points of contact. — Language 
study will have its starting point not in rules and principles 
of composition, nor in abstract grammatical relations, but 
in real vital expression, in oral or written speech which deals 
with the interests, needs and ideas of the child himself. 
The study of physiology will not start with matters of 
anatomy, physiological chemistry, nor with any other distant 
concept having no immediate relation to the child's life; it 
will begin with questions of food, growth, exercise, breath- 
ing and like matters concerning the pupil's present life and 
physical welfare. 

The study of agriculture will begin with the farm crops, 
gardens and animals found at the homes of the pupils or 
in the immediate vicinity. From these concrete beginnings 
based on real affairs and genuine interests it will extend 
until it has reached the broader facts and principles on 
which the science depends. In like manner the study of 
manual training, instead of requiring long practise on va- 



110 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

rious exercises in making joints which are never used to 
join the parts of any real article, will start with the making 
of some simple article which itself contains the joints in 
question, thus adding motive and reality to the work. 

Applied to spelling, the psychological principle will de- 
mand that the child be taught to spell not a haphazard, mis- 
cellaneous list of words having no direct relation to his need 
for them, but on the other hand his spelling will deal with 
the words which are then and there being employed by the 
pupil in his daily writing of lessons, letters and whatever 
material is used in his written work. 

The organization of each day's lesson. — In like manner 
should the psychological principle of organization be ex- 
tended to the preparation of any section of material, or 
any day's lesson for instruction. The great question is not 
how this particular bit of material will best fit into some 
outline or classification which will look well in a note-book 
or upon a blackboard, but how it can best be arranged so 
that it can be grasped, assimilated and applied by the learn- 
ers. The teacher is to take his stand with the pupil, see 
things through his eyes, and approach them through his men- 
tal processes when he constructs his lesson plans. He will 
make use of the principle of apperception, starting with what 
the child already knows and is interested in. From this van- 
tage point he will proceed on out into the related new and 
unknown. 

Meeting Point of the Logical and the Psychological 

It must not be supposed from the preceding discussion 
that the logical and the psychological order are always and 
irrevocably opposed. On the contrary they tend finally to 
become identical. This is because the developing mind as 
it masters its world of knowledge and learns the technique 



THE ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 111 

of thinking naturally organizes and classifies its knowledge 
in a logical system. 

Growth toward the logical. — It is not to be understood 
that there is any virtue in presenting to the child an illogical 
or haphazard system of facts to be learned. On the con- 
trary, all matter taught should be as logically organized 
as the child's development and grasp will at that stage per- 
mit him to utilize. It is to be understood, however, that 
the logical organization is constantly to proceed in accord- 
ance with the child's broadening grasp and experience, and 
not be controlled by any considerations inhering in the facts 
themselves. 

Restating the position, we may say that the child's psycho- 
logical order constantly tends toward the logical. The or- 
ganization of the subject-matter of his instruction should 
keep step in the same direction and assist in the process, 
but should never outstrip it and become an end in itself. 

Summing up our discussion, we have seen that it is as 
important that material shall be well organized as that it 
shall be wisely selected. We are at present in the stage of 
passing over from the logical to the psychological organiza- 
tion of the curriculum. Logical organization ignores the 
genetic principle of education and is governed by the de- 
mands of the material. The psychological gradually moves 
in the direction of the logical, and the two finally tend to 
become one for the trained thinker. Material organized to 
fit the demands of the child's mind is more easily learned, 
stimulates greater interest and response, and fits more di- 
rectly into the general body of the learner's experience. 

The principles of psychological organization apply to the 
arrangement of subjects in the course of study, to the order 
and treatment of topics in a text-book, and to the teacher's 
plan for each day's study and recitations. 



112 Class-room method and management 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Make an examination of the texts you teach to determine the 
type of their organization. Do they begin with the general and ab- 
stract, with rules, definitions and principles, with matter that is far 
removed from the experience and activities of the child — or the 
opposite ? 

2. In preparing your lesson plans do you consciously and defi- 
nitely plan to secure a natural and simple mode of approach for the 
child? That is, do you have the child or the material in mind when 
you organize your material? 

3. Are you clear as to what is meant by the "inductive method" ? 
Can you apply it to geography, civics, language, nature study, etc., as 
well as to arithmetic? Does the child naturally approach all his 
learning inductively? 

4. What in your judgment are the qualities that make a good 
text-book? A poor text-book? When you go to inspect a new text- 
book what do you first look for? Do you feel that your judgment 
is well enough grounded so that you would be justified in making a 
selection of texts for your school? Ought a teacher to train to this 
ability ? 

5. A mechanically organized lesson is often easier to present 
than a lesson organized on psychological lines. Why is this ? Which 
is the harder factor in teaching, the material or the child? 



CHAPTER IX 

THE TECHNIQUE OF INSTRUCTION 

WITH one's aim clear, and the material selected and 
organized, he is then ready for presentation of this 
material in the recitation. The principles underlying the 
presentation of the subject-matter in the recitation are so 
broad and varied that they are impossible of full treatment 
in the brief space of a single chapter. Furthermore, in- 
struction must constantly be modified in its details and 
methods to suit both the subject and the age and degree 
of advancement of the pupils ; for every subject has its own 
particular problems and every class its own special needs 
and peculiarities. All that can be accomplished, therefore, 
in the brief type of treatment we have in mind is to suggest 
certain principles which underlie all good instruction and 
will in general apply to all subjects. 

Personal Factors Depending on the Teacher 

Instruction is the most peculiarly personal of all of the 
teacher's functions. When the teacher presents subject-mat- 
ter to the class the pupils think, understand and master, not 
the subject-matter alone as such, but this material as it is 
shaped and colored by the teacher's point of view, and satu- 
rated with the teacher's ^personality. Indeed, it is the person- 
ality of the teacher that gives much of the subject-matter 
its very spirit and life. To be a good instructor, there- 
fore, the teacher must first of all possess that intangible 
something that is called personality. 

113 



114 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Personality a factor in instruction. — Because of its 
marvelous complexity and its variable qualities in different 
individuals personality can not be strictly defined; yet it 
is in no small degree subject to analysis, and is thoroughly 
cultivatable. Personality develops from day to day in the 
ordinary processes of our lives. 

Physical aspects of personality. First of all, person- 
ality has its physical aspect. The person whose physical 
poise, bearing and dignity are impressive has a great ad- 
vantage over one of opposite qualities when he confronts 
his class. The bowed form and stooping shoulders, the 
slouching and shuffling gait, the slack artd awkward posture, 
or the careless and ill-kept attire all go to subtract very 
definitely from effective teaching power. 

The intellectual quality in personality. Personality is 
also an intellectual quality. None have failed to notice 
the difference between a magnetic and stimulating type of 
mentality and the opposite. All have felt the arousing, 
inspiring and enlivening effects that radiate from the fresh- 
ness of the vitally alert mind. On the other hand none have 
failed to note the deadening and depressing intellectual in- 
fluence that comes from association with a mind that lacks 
the vital spark. 

Such differences in the intellectual personality come not 
alone from differences in native ability, but probably even 
more from the quality of interests and the general trend 
of the thought life. The live and stimulating mind is the 
mind that is awake to a broad range of human interests 
which serve to fire the imagination, stir the enthusiasm and 
make one more generally and completely alive. This type 
of mind occupies itself with the real and pressing problems 
of life, concerned with them both for its own welfare and 
for that of its neighbors. 



THE TECHNIQUE OF INSTRUCTION 115 

The quality of human sympathy. Personality also in- 
cludes the quality of human sympathy. The person whose 
mental processes consist mainly of logical trains of thought, 
who possesses insight and high-grade intellectual ability, 
but who is lacking in sympathy and the ability to enter 
into other people's interests and experiences, lacks one of 
the most necessary qualities of the teacher. This is espe- 
cially true for the teacher of children, whose mental life 
unfolds freely and naturally only in an atmosphere of kind- 
liness, sympathy and good will. Many children are cowed, 
disconcerted and put at their worst in- the presence of an un- 
sympathetic personality that towers up and over them. The 
remedy for the cold personality of this type is of course to 
cultivate the sympathetic side of the nature. 

The teacher's educational equipment. — After the fun- 
damental question of personality comes next that of the 
teacher's grounding educationally. This includes not alone 
a thorough mastery of the subjects he teaches, but also a 
broad background of knowledge, interests and appreciations 
covering a wide range of affairs. There is no more cer- 
tain fact bearing on instruction than that no teacher can 
successfully teach all he knows. One who lacks in either 
breadth or depth of preparation is obliged to teach without 
perspective, and is unable to give the vital touch of mean- 
ing and application in his teaching which can come only 
from wide knowledge, outlook and experience. 

The teacher must also possess deep devotion to his work. 
Its value and dignity must impress him. His ambition and 
enthusiasm must be gripped and compelled by the oppor- 
tunities of the class room. Our human nature is so con- 
stituted that our powers are exerted to the full only under 
the stimulus of some worthy cause or necessity that de- 
mands the best there is in us. One, therefore, who looks on 



116 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

his work as something insignificant or unimportant has by 
this very fact limited to a very appreciable degree the 
amount of ability he can put into his instruction. 

Need for clear thinking. — The teacher must be a clear 
thinker, whose mind is capable of carrying a considerable 
range of points at one time. This is to say that in order to 
make a good presentation one must have in mind the whole 
plan of the lesson, and must know at any given moment 
in the recitation just what stage has been reached in these 
points and what points remain in order to round out and 
perfect the field of information. Questions, explanations 
and supplementary information must always be based on 
the answers, discussions and facts that have already been 
brought out in the lesson. 

The teacher must be able to note at a glance any flagging 
interest, doubtful comprehension, troubling question, or other 
indications of what is passing in the minds and experience 
of his class. Mischief or indifference which pass unob- 
served in the class room are evidence that the teacher either 
has not mastered the technique of instruction, or else that 
his own mind possesses such limitations that he is unable 
to keep close track of the human element in the class while 
at the same time manipulating the subject-matter of instruc- 
tion. 

The Technique of Instruction 

Probably all teachers could greatly increase their effective- 
ness in instruction by diligent study of the technique of 
their work. Certainly many teachers fail of rendering high 
service from lack of good technique. 

Good instruction requires the use of certain psychological 
factors. First of all it should be recognized that no excel- 
lence of preparation on the part of the teacher, no perfec- 



THE TECHNIQUE OF INSTRUCTION 117 

tion of organization of material, or no factor of any other 
kind will accomplish suitable results if interest and attention 
are lacking on the part of the class. This simple psycholog- 
ical fact, which is so obvious as to be a truism, is never- 
theless not made the foundation of instruction in many a 
class room. And no matter how excellent the teacher or 
how successful his work in general, there is no one who 
has not had the experience of moments, or even whole 
class periods, when interest seemed at ebb and when atten- 
tion and alertness were hard to claim. 

Commanding concentration.-— The mind is so organ- 
ized that it is wholly impossible to accomplish any worthy 
results without that concentration of its energy which we 
call a state of attention. For a teacher to continue his in- 
struction with any considerable portion of his class inatten- 
tive, uninterested or manifesting only a polite indifference is 
worse than useless. Whatever may be the cause of this 
condition the condition itself must be relieved if it is to be 
worth while to continue the instruction. Not only do such 
conditions defeat the immediate purpose of the recitation, 
but they also encourage and cultivate one of the worst of 
mental habits, namely, that of inattention and indifference. 

The effects of attitude. — Not less necessary than in- 
terest is the spirit of cooperation and good will. The 
moods, and indeed the whole emotional side of the mind, 
are so closely connected with the intellectual processes that 
it is impossible for thought to be its best with adverse emo- 
tional currents working counter to it. A spirit of hostility, 
bitterness or dislike toward the teacher is entirely certain 
to cripple the effects of his instruction. 

This does not mean that the teacher must therefore be 
easy, slack or haphazard in his work in order not to arouse 
antagonism. First of all, such standards on the part of 
the teacher will lose him the respect of the class, and when 



118 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

respect goes, cooperation and responsiveness are not long 
in following. Let the teacher be strong and consistent, let 
him maintain high standards of excellence in preparation 
and in the recitation, but let him not work with his pupils 
in the spirit of a critic, constantly giving the impression 
that he is seeking to discover flaws and to trap the unwary. 
Let him avoid giving the impression that he is a hunter after 
faults and weaknesses, and that children are his legitimate 
prey. On the other hand let him constantly manifest, even 
when most stern and severe in his requirements, the spirit 
of helpfulness, comradeship and good will that should pre- 
vail among those who are working together for a common 
end. 

Moral effects of cooperation. — Not only will this atti- 
tude in instruction tend to create an atmosphere favorable 
to the growth and development of young minds, but it will 
also serve to remove the temptation to insincerity and eva- 
sion on the part of many children. In not a few children 
is the habit developed of trying to cover up weaknesses, 
failures or lack of mastery. They feel that they are out 
of sympathy with the teacher, and that it is safer not to 
allow their failures to become known. From this attitude 
to the recognized art of "bluffing" is but a step, and a most 
natural one. Under the best conditions of instruction the 
child will feel that he not only can, but should, come to 
the teacher with any troublesome problem or unmastered 
section of his lesson, seeking such sympathy, advice, help- 
fulness or instruction as may be required. 

Good teaching chiefly inductive. — In the presentation 
of material as well as in its organization the psychological 
order is to be followed. This is equivalent to saying that 
the inductive instead of the deductive method will in general 
characterize good elementary instruction. The child will 



THE TECHNIQUE OF INSTRUCTION 119 

learn by investigation and experiment that the area of a 
triangle is found by multiplying its base by half its altitude, 
and the rule will follow instead of preceding the grasping 
of this fact. He will come to understand the mystery of 
the fertilization of the plant by watching the bees with pol- 
len-laden feet, or by examining the drifting pollen from 
corn-field or orchard; out of these individual observations 
and experiences, guided by the teacher, the wider general- 
izations will come. Inductive teaching secures the double 
advantage of following the child's natural method of learn- 
ing, and of training in observation and investigation by di- 
rect contact with things. 

The inductive process requires that we begin with con- 
crete cases and individual instances. But we are not to 
stop with them ; they are to be followed on through to gen- 
eral conclusions and to applications. Inductive teaching does 
not start a new topic with rules or definitions, which are 
always generalizations. On the other hand, after leading the 
child, through the individual examples and concrete cases, 
to understand the general principles involved we should, 
except in the lowest grades, bring him to form his own 
rules and definitions. Once these are understood in such a 
way the learner can then proceed to use them deductively 
by applying them to still other instances in this particular 
field. Having formed his own rules and definitions he feels 
the strength and certainty that come from mastery; fur- 
thermore, he so thoroughly understands the principle, rule 
or definition with which he works that it is not, as so many 
rules and definitions are, mere verbal lumber in his mind. 
On the contrary, they become an organizing, effective, work- 
ing instrument leading to independence and originality of 
thought. 

Building on the known. — The principle of apperception 



120 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

must also be constantly employed in our instruction. This 
is only to say that the new must constantly be built on the 
foundation of related old, so that the matter learned shall 
form a continuous and organic whole in the mind of the 
child. 

One of the greatest of class-room faults is the teaching 
of new material without giving it a foundation and point of 
attachment with related matter already in the mind. This 
false system of teaching results in isolated bits of informa- 
tion, curious but meaningless sets of facts, and an endless 
number of unrelated details which never really function in 
the thought, and hence play no part in the true end of edu- 
cation. The aim of our instruction is not so much informa- 
tion or knowledge as such, but a series of related truths 
which play a real part in guiding action and determining 
conduct. 

Methods Employed in Presentation 

The skilful teacher must be able to use a variety of meth- 
ods in his instruction. No one plan of presentation can be 
successfully used day after day in any class room. The very 
monotony and lack of variety will tend 'to cripple interest 
and to lessen attention. There are, however, certain meth- 
ods of instruction which are better adapted to some stages 
of development and to some subjects than to others. 

The question-and-answer method. — What we com- 
monly call in the school-room parlance the question-and- 
answer method is the foundation of all elementary teaching. 
This is the famous Socratic method by which the immortal 
Greek teacher led his pupils inductively, step by step, into 
new realms of knowledge without himself telling them the 
facts or principles involved. By such method he not only 
secured to them the desired knowledge, but, perhaps of even 



THE TECHNIQUE OF INSTRUCTION 121 

more value, he trained them in a method and habit of 
thought that led them to become independent thinkers and 
investigators in their own right. 

The question-and-answer method can be fruitfully used 
in the development of all new topics where the new is to be 
connected with the old in the mind of the learner. Espe- 
cially is this method adapted to those who are still in the 
stage where they need to be trained in methods of study 
and thinking. At its best the question-and-answer process 
of instruction is a half formal conversation between teacher 
and class. The teacher directs the conversation, perhaps 
even dominates it, but never monopolizes it. Each succeed- 
ing question grows out of the preceding question and the 
answer thereto in the mastery and development of the topic. 

The art of good questioning.— The teacher's questions 
must be clear and definite in meaning so that they may be 
understood. The indefinite question leads to guessing on 
the part of the pupil and can not have other than an in- 
definite answer. In order to be clear the questions must 
be in simple terms and be brief and concise, that they may 
be easily grasped and held in the mind while the answer is 
being formulated. 

In skilful questioning the teacher is not bound to a text- 
book, but is able while following the outline of the assigned 
lesson to broaden the topic and enrich it from his greater 
knowledge and mastery. The teacher's manner and bearing 
are those of the interested conversationalist, and never sink 
to the dull level of uninteresting quizzing, or the perfunc- 
tory carrying on of a necessary but disagreeable duty. The 
bright and alert eye, the interested and changing expres- 
sion, and every other physical attribute that marks a good 
conversationalist are demanded in the recitation of this type. 
The children's answers should be received with responsive- 
ness and courtesy, even when they must be criticized or 



122 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

corrected. Sarcasm, superciliousness of bearing, or any 
other quality that will serve to intimidate children have no 
place in the recitation, any more than they have in social 
conversation in well-bred society. 

The topical method. — Supplementing the question-and- 
answer method of instruction the topical method is found of 
great use. This method requires somewhat more of mas- 
tery and independence of thought on the part of the pupil 
than the question-and-answer method. When giving a full 
topical recitation the speaker must depend on his own or- 
ganization of thought and on his own powers of expression. 
The topical method affords opportunity, therefore, to teach 
children to organize and relate the matter which they de- 
sire to express. It gives them practise in continuous and 
systematic thinking, thus developing the power to stay longer 
on the wing mentally, than if trained under the question- 
and-answer method alone. 

The topical method, if skilfully handled, also gives ex- 
cellent opportunity to add a social incentive in some degree 
lacking in other methods. This comes from the fact that 
topics may be assigned for certain pupils to bring before the 
class on subjects which the remainder of the class have 
not studied. The one reciting then has 'the advantage of 
addressing a real audience of listeners whom he may tell 
something that they themselves do not know. There is no 
great incentive in reciting matter to a group of classmates 
all of whom know what is being told as thoroughly as the 
speaker. 

Supplementing the topical method should be a series of 
questions and answers to broaden, elaborate or apply the 
truth brought out in the discussion of the topic. This sug- 
gests that the two methods may well be used together. 

The supplemental method. — The method commonly 
called the lecture method would, at least for elementary 



THE TECHNIQUE OF INSTRUCTION 123 

teaching, better be called the supplemental method. In all 
good instruction the teacher is constantly broadening the 
point of view presented in the text by material brought in 
from his own wider knowledge. This material may some- 
times be expressed in the form of a brief sentence only, 
again it may require a number of sentences of explanation 
or application, or it may demand the fuller discussion which 
conceivably might extend over the greater part of a recita- 
tion period. 

Constant tact and judgment on the part of the instructor 
are required to judge just when, how and in what degree 
to add material of his own to the topic under discussion. 
Every well prepared teacher has experienced the temptation 
to plunge into a discussion of his own rather than to follow 
out the less inspiring set of details of the assigned lesson. 
This temptation must be rigidly put aside, however, and 
no material brought into the presentation which does not 
specifically belong there for some definite and immediate 
purpose. Mere talk, even if it is interesting, has no place 
in the recitation. On the other hand, the teacher who has 
nothing to contribute out of his own knowledge and expe- 
rience is ill prepared for the work of instruction. 

It is in these supplemental remarks, occasional applica- 
tions, and broader discussions or informal lectures that the 
teacher has his best opportunity for stimulating, inspiring 
and energizing the ambitions and intellectual ideals of his 
pupils. It is at such points that he is most the teacher and 
that his influence will be most fruitful. The teacher who 
fails to take advantage of this opportunity is the mere me- 
chanical tester or examiner, who counts his duty done and 
his function fulfilled when he has assured himself that his 
pupils have mastered the subject-matter of the text. He 
teaches but a text-book when he should teach the broad sub- 
ject to which the text-book relates. 



124 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

The laboratory method. — -Still another important 
method of instruction is what we have come to call the 
laboratory method. The essence of this method is that it 
requires the pupils themselves to do something, to carry out 
some experiment, to make some investigation, or in some 
other way learn through investigation and action. The 
laboratory method is used not only in the older natural sci- 
ences, such as chemistry, physics and biology, but also in 
such of the newer subjects as manual training and domestic 
science. It can be much more fully extended into other lines 
than has commonly been done. 

For example, many forms of literature can best be taught 
by dramatizing the production. This is as thoroughly a 
laboratory method as that of mixing chemicals to produce 
a certain reaction in the chemical laboratory. The lessons 
in civics are more effective when they are put immediately 
into practise in the school, community or city. Boys and 
girls who take an active part in the beautifying and keep- 
ing clean of streets and alleys and back yards of their neigh- 
borhood are having laboratory practise in civics. Those 
who go to the polling places on election day and study the 
process of voting are having laboratory practise in citizen- 
ship. And so on with other subjects. 

Good presentation combines all methods. — Good in- 
struction will require that the teacher know and be able 
skilfully to use all of these different methods. Not only 
are they required for variety, but as has been shown, each 
has its own peculiar advantages and is required as a supple- 
ment for the others. The teacher who settles down to any 
one method to the exclusion of the others quickly sinks 
into a rut and finds his classes becoming dull, restless and 
unresponsive. And such an attitude on the part of the pu- 
pils is but a symptom of mental inertia and the absence of 
the interest and enthusiasm necessary to learning. 



THE TECHNIQUE OF INSTRUCTION 125 



Tests of a Good Recitation 

Are there any easily applied and certain tests of the suc- 
cess of our instruction? Are there any standardized meas- 
ures by which we can judge our teaching efficiently in the 
recitation? Instruction is too complex a process and its 
various forms too inter-related to work out any uniform 
and standard series of tests which can be uniformly applied. 
Of certain facts we may, however, be sure. First of all, 
instruction presupposes and requires response. 

The test of complete response. — Teaching and learning 
are but the obverse and reverse sides of the same situa- 
tion, hence no instruction can be successful and no teaching 
reach a high degree of skill which does not secure that alert- 
ness and response from pupils which alone is an evidence 
of their grasping and assimilating the matter taught. One 
of the first tests of a good recitation, therefore, is whether 
all are "in the game." 

It is easy to secure the attention and participation of the 
brightest members of the class. It is a simple thing to carry 
the alert ones through on a train of thought without losing 
their interest. But the average class of fair size is not made 
up altogether of bright and alert minds. It has in fact but 
the smaller proportion of this type. The greater number 
range within the average or mediocre type, while a small 
proportion rank as positively weak and ineffective mentally. 
Skilful instruction does not, therefore, set its standard at 
winning the highest twenty-five per cent, of the class alone. 
It must aim at securing response from the mediocre, and 
better still at securing response from all. 

However we may divide the proportions among these 
three groups we shall find the groups all represented, and 
will, if we are willing to be very rigid in our requirements, 



126 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

estimate our skill by our ability to command the full powers 
of the entire group. Yet we must not aim our instruction 
chiefly at the incompetent or mediocre to the neglect of the 
stronger and brighter pupils. To hold them back for their 
less gifted companions is a worse mistake than to discrim- 
inate against the weak for the strong. The ideal is to give 
each his fair share and chance. 

The contagion of inattention. — Inattention on the part 
of any members of the class is fatal to the best results from 
instruction, not alone to those who are inattentive, but in 
some degree to every member of the class group. A class 
at its best mentally consists of a number of mental units, 
each reenforcing and supporting with his own mental activ- 
ity the thought, energy and effectiveness of the entire group. 

Every inattentive pupil breaks the chain and hinders the 
flow of enthusiasm and effectiveness that comes from uni- 
fied interest of a number of workers. It is as if each in- 
dividual in the class were a separate cell in a battery series, 
the inattentive ones representing dead cells, which break the 
circuit. The teacher, therefore, owes it not only to the inat- 
tentive members of the class, but to the others as well, to 
stimulate the dead mentalities into action and to cure the 
lack of enthusiasm that breaks the chain of attention. 

The movement of the recitation. — Effectiveness of in- 
struction is also measured in no small degree by the move- 
ment of the thought and plan of lesson. Every one knows 
the drag that comes from the book, the play or the lecture 
that dallies by the way, has unnecessary breaks in its con- 
tinuity or is in general slow in its action. The same prin- 
ciple applies in the recitation. Pauses that are occupied 
with thought or meditation are not, of course, wasted. .Such 
moments may be the most valuable of any period of the 
lesson hour. It is rather the empty lapses which occur for 
no reason except the unreadiness or lack of preparation of 



THE TECHNIQUE OF INSTRUCTION 127 

the teacher that are to be criticized. Every such deadening 
interval is a break in the thread of thought, which of neces- 
sity must be picked up again at the expense of energy, time 
and interest. 

Eliminating the distractions. — Good instruction re- 
quires as one of its conditions freedom from unnecessary 
distractions which have a tendency to break in upon the train 
of thought. The standard of the recitation should be such 
that all mischief, whether playful or malicious, shall be set 
aside and have no place in the recitation. Pupils should be 
made to feel that the opportunities of the lesson hour are too 
important, the requirements too high, and the demands of 
courtesy and cooperation too insistent to permit misbehavior 
or lack of attention. The recitation hour is a business en- 
gagement between teacher and pupils and should be carried 
out in a business manner. This caution is undoubtedly su- 
perfluous for many class rooms. But that it has application 
to the conditions in many schools can not be doubted by those 
who have closely studied present-day class-room practise. 

Maintaining high standards. — The best instruction is 
impossible without high standards in the recitation. This 
is but to say that careful and skilled instruction must be met 
and responded to by correspondingly strong mastery and 
appropriation on the part of the pupils. The administration 
of the recitation should be such that failures are not taken 
as a matter of course, or treated with a spirit of levity. 
The recitation hour is the very center and heart of the school 
work and a failure there means failure throughout the sys- 
tem. The attitude of the class and the instructor should be 
such that probable failures in recitation are looked forward 
to with some apprehension and remembered with regret if 
not humiliation. 

Finally we may say that good instruction demands good 
expression. L The teacher who is unable to use his mother 



128 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

tongue clearly, readily and forcefully can hardly make a 
good instructor. Much of the more or less prevalent lack 
of clearness in instruction probably depends upon incom- 
plete mastery of subject-matter or the habit of hazy and 
imperfect thinking. There can be no doubt, however, that 
simple inability in the use of clear speech is also respon- 
sible for no small proportion of the low-grade instruction. 
It is one thing to know a series of facts or field of knowl- 
edge, and quite another thing to be able to express facts 
and explanations so effectively that the untrained mind ear* 
grasp, unify and appropriate. 

Good instruction will also require and train in the use 
of good English on the part of the pupils. Incorrect ex- 
pression, incomplete statements, faulty pronunciation and 
awkward explanations will not be received. For not only 
is good speech worth the training required for its own sake 
but it also has a very direct relation to clear and effective 
thinking. 

Da/nger Points in Instruction 

It is a well-known law in pedagogy that negatives are not 
often inspiring, and that to present an array of one's mis- 
takes is not the best mode of helping him to avoid them. 
However, having stated certain of the positive elements in- 
volved in good instruction it may not be out of place to 
speak of a few of the danger points. 

Lack of definiteness. — Probably no other defect of in- 
struction causes more waste and loss of results than failure 
of definiteness in our teaching. He who lacks a consciously 
recognized and definite aim either for his subject or for 
any period of instruction within it is not likely to attain 
valuable results. Many teachers go into their recitations 
not only lacking a clear idea of what should be achieved, 



THE TECHNIQUE OF INSTRUCTION 129 

but also devoid of any prearranged or conscious plan of 
action. They are completely at the mercy of the text-book, 
or if this happens not to supply an organized plan, they 
are at the mercy of circumstances and drift hither and 
thither upon detached and isolated matters, each unrelated 
to the other. The whole process therefore arrives at noth- 
ing. 

The principle of definiteness is also often violated, as 
shown earlier in our discussion, by failure to carry the truths 
developed in the lesson through to the point where they 
apply to life conduct. 

Avoiding dead levels. — A second danger point in in- 
struction is the lack of perspective in teaching. It is pos- 
sible to present all the aspects of a lesson on a dead level, 
and with an entire absence of emphasis on the important 
points. Minor details and incidental aspects of the subject 
receive with such teachers the same stress that is given to 
the more important points. Not only does this type of 
method fail to lodge in the minds of the learners the larger 
truths which deserve the permanent place in their body of 
knowledge, but there is also a failure to teach pupils through 
the use of stress and neglect of emphasis how themselves 
to recognize and make use of the more fruitful points of 
their lessons. 

The rut of routine. — Teaching is not only a severe 
nervous strain, but the ever recurring recitation hours are 
likely to become monotonous and to take on a routine qual- 
ity if the teacher is not thoroughly aware of this danger. 
If such a calamity happens it is evidenced by the teacher's 
lack of alertness and enthusiasm in the recitation. The 
instruction has no sparkle to it, and the entire recitation 
process lacks the swing that characterizes successful instruc- 
tion and reciting. When this condition obtains, the pupils 
come to the class without anticipation or interest and they 



130 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

leave it without regret. They have failed to enjoy their 
work and have thereby lost one of the greatest incentives 
to effort. 

Stopping short of mastery. — Still another danger point 
is that of stopping short of sufficient mastery of important 
and fundamental matter. It can hardly be doubted that our 
entire school system is open to the criticism of too much 
partial learning. We let go by in our instruction too many 
but dimly grasped meanings. We pass over too many par- 
tially understood truths. There is too much of failure, as 
previously noted, to make automatic the simple associative 
learning, such as the symbols of speech, punctuation marks, 
number combinations, commonly required spellings, and all 
such material that depends not on ideational thought, but 
on the simplest form of associations. The remedy is of 
course obvious. We need more thoroughness in mastery, 
even if this should require a somewhat narrower range of 
material covered. 

In our discussion we have taken the position that the 
final test of the teacher is his mastery of the technique of 
instruction. The foundation of his effectiveness lies in the 
quality of his personality, which is in a large degree culti- 
vatable. The teacher needs to be a clear thinker and a ready 
speaker. Educational equipment is a prime essential not 
always met. 

The command of attention and cooperation is the first test 
of good technique. The question-and-answer method, the 
topical method and the laboratory method all have their 
place and should be used to supplement one another. The 
art of questioning should be developed and inductive ques- 
tions freely employed. 

The tests of a good recitation include response; move- 
ment; complete participation; freedom from distractions; 



THE TECHNIQUE OF INSTRUCTION 131 

serious thought and interest ; freedom from trickery, bluff- 
ing and evasion. The standards should be high and then 
should be met. There are certain danger points to be 
avoided, such as the lack of definiteness, "dead levels," ruts 
of routine and incomplete mastery. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. As you think back over the teachers that have meant most to 
you can you now tell what factors gave them their power ? Did they 
have good personalities? Are you consciously seeking to improve 
your own personality? 

2. Have you ever noticed whether you enjoy teaching a lesson 
over which you feel the power of full mastery? Do you enjoy or 
do as well in teaching a lesson you have not fully in your command ? 
Have you such a mastery of your subjects that you can teach the 
subject instead of a certain text? 

3. Do you have any difficulty in holding the full attention of 
your class? Are the pupils responsive? Are they in good spirit, 
and cordial toward you? Do they like the school work and enjoy 
the recitations? Do you? 

4. Which of the methods described do you most use? Why? 
That is, have you considered them all and decided a certain one is 
best for your use? Or do you use them all? Do you supplement 
much in your recitations? Do you find any difficulty in a tendency 
to drift away from the lesson topics? 

5. Have you any trouble with mischief in the recitation? With 
other forms of distraction? Do your recitations move, or have they 
a tendency to drag? What do you consider your weakest points in 
the recitation? Your strongest? 



Part Two: Method of the Common Branches 



CHAPTER X 

READING AND LITERATURE 

READING is the most important of school subjects. It 
is the key that unlocks the door to all other learning. 
In every land it is the dividing line between gross ignorance 
and intelligence. It opens the way into the treasure house 
of literature, and brings one into contact with the thoughts 
and deeds of the whole world, present and past. One of 
the greatest contributions the school can offer to the child 
is to make him a good reader. ( 

Aims — Results Sought 

We teach reading that the child may learn how to gather 
thought and feeling from the printed page. This means 
that he shall be able so to enter into the situations, incidents 
and actions described that the experiences are recreated in 
his own thought and feeling, and made real through imag- 
ination. Thought and feeling naturally lead to expression ; 
then we have oral reading. But there can be no oral read- 
ing until the thought and feeling are grasped — up to this 
point there can be but the pronunciation of words. We 
teach oral reading, therefore, to train in the expression of 
thought and feeling as they are gleaned from printed ma- 
terial. 

But the aims just stated deal chiefly with the mechanics of 
reading. And our purpose in teaching reading is but begun 

132 



READING AND LITERATURE 133 

when the mechanics are mastered. We are not only to teach 
the child how, but what — not only train him to read, but 
lead him some distance in his reading. After putting into 
his hands the tools, made up of the printed symbols, we 
are to guide his use of these tools in opening up the won- 
ders and beauties of the field of literature. Having taught 
him to read, we must teach him to read. 

More briefly stated, then, our aims will be the following : 

1. To teach the mechanics of reading, leading to the 
power (1) to appropriate and (2) to express thought and 
feeling from printed material. 

2. To train the habit of reading, thus opening the way 
to enjoyment, inspiration and knowledge from books — that 
is, to make readers. 

The knowledge required— <-The child usually comes to 
school ignorant of the whole set of symbols — letters, words, 
marks and sentences— which constitute the mechanics of 
printed speech. They look to him at least as strange as 
the following sentence in Yiddish looks to the English-speak- 
ing teacher : 

Wis *wp dw ukbjk ok d*ik jiw t»in*wjnin iraprniH y&K 

Yet these symbols must be learned, and the knowledge of 
them must become accurate and ready, so that each word 
or mark carries an immediate and certain meaning. This 
is a large undertaking and the teacher should lead the way 
with sympathy, understanding and helpfulness. 

After the mechanics the matter. The child does not at 
the beginning know that there are interesting stories to be 
read, beautiful poems to be enjoyed, valuable information 
to be gleaned. He must be led into this knowledge through 
the reading of stories and poems and information. He must 
be brought to realize and prize his rich heritage in the world 
of books, magazines, papers. He must not be taught to 
read, and then left without knowing what to read or without: 



134 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

having formed the habit of reading. Through reading the 
child is able to enrich his experience. This power will 
emancipate him from the immediate, in time and place, and 
bring him into contact ..with the thought and life of other 
ages and climes. Through reading he ceases to be provin- 
cial, and takes his place as a member of the human family 
and a citizen of the world. 

Attitudes to be cultivated. — One of the great aims in 
teaching reading is to lead children to enjoy reading. The 
person who loves good reading has a resource that will yield 
permanent satisfaction and enrich his life from youth to 
old age. Any teaching of reading which does not tend to 
broaden and strengthen the sheer enjoyment from reading 
has been of doubtful value, if not a positive detriment. 

The training of interests and tastes is another great end 
in the teaching of reading and literature. There is so much 
of good to be chosen and so much of bad to be shunned 
that the child is in urgent need of guidance. He needs 
the kind of training that will make his interest crave and 
his taste demand the masterpiece of beautiful form and rich 
content rather than the cheap, sordid, unimaginative tales 
that flood the market. He needs to be saved from squan- 
dering his time and wasting his enthusiasms on the low or 
the commonplace. And he can be saved, for interest and 
taste grow by what they feed upon. The great thing is to 
fill the early time and interest so full of the worth-while in 
reading that the other shall find no place. 

After personal contacts of teacher, friends and compan- 
ions, literature affords the best opportunity for cultivating 
worthy ideals and enthusiasms in the child. Here the good, 
the beautiful, the heroic are all idealized and set forth in 
attractive form. Great and noble characters are made to 
live before the child and he comes to love them. Noble 
deeds are done and great service rendered, and the child 



HEADING AND LITERATURE 135 

comes to admire and emulate. Beautiful diction is employed 
and beautiful rhythms and rhymes used, and the child learns 
to enjoy them. So standards develop, ideals take shape and 
character forms. 

Skills to be trained. — The aim in teaching the me- 
chanics of reading is to make them thoroughly mechanical. 
That is to say, the words, punctuation marks, sentence struc- 
ture and all other elements involved in taking thought and 
feeling from the printed page must be made so automatic 
as to require no conscious effort or attention. No real en- 
joyment and no great efficiency in grasping thought can be 
expected until the automatic stage is reached. All who have 
studied a foreign language know how the half -mastered 
vocabulary and strange sentence structure experienced in 
the earlier stages hinder the satisfaction (or even meaning !) 
we should gather from the story we read. To the child be- 
ginning to read, his own tongue is of course at first a for- 
eign language. 

Let the teacher read the following fragment of a simple 
narrative, beginning at the end and reading backward. It 
will help him comprehend the child's need of developing 
automatic skill. For the child's difficulties are at first, when 
the mechanics of reading are all strange to him, much greater 
than are ours in the experiment : 

hungwhichilapshad'\lsosomeembroideredmuchinsteptheover 
pieceahadpatternselaboratemorefoottheoveroneandheelthe 
behindseamonehadmoccasinofkindsimplestthethemshaping 

ofwaysdifferenthadtribesvariousthemoccasinsworetheydowe 

asleatherofshoeswearingofinsteadbeadsandclawsbearsteeth 

elksofmadenecklacesweartolikedandornamentsof fond were 

indiansthefineryotherandbeadsfeathersbirdquillsporcupine 

withembroideredwerethesesometimes 

Various tests have been devised to measure the reading 
skill of children in the earlier grades. One of the most 



136 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

generally used is that devised by Professor F. J. Kelly, 
and is called the "Kansas Silent Reading Test." It con- 
sists of sixteen graded paragraphs, each requiring that 
the child read understanding^ some simple direction, and 
then do what it demands. The score value varies for the 
different paragraphs as indicated after the number of each. 
Samples for grades three, four and five are given below: 1 
(Time allowed, five minutes.) 

No. 8 

Count the letters in each of the words written 

Value below. You will find that pumpkin has seven 

1.9 letters, and thanks has six letters. One of the 

words has five letters in it. If you can find the 

one having five letters, draw a line around it. 

breeze thanks yours pumpkin duck 

No. 9 

Value H ere ar e some names of things. Put a line 
2.0 around the name of the one which is most nearly 
round in every way like a ball. 

saucer teacup orange pear arm 

No. 10 
A recipe calls for milk, sugar, cornstarch and 
2 1 UC e ££ s - * k ave m ^k, sugar and eggs. What must 
I get before I can use the recipe ? 



No. 11 

We planted three trees in a row. The first 

v . one was nine feet tall and the last one was three 

22 feet shorter than the first one. The middle one 

was two feet taller than the last one. How tall 

was the middle one? 



^■The blanks are published by the Kansas State Normal School, 
Emporia, Kansas. 



READING AND LITERATURE 137, 

No. 12 

Below are three lines. If the middle line is 

Value ^ e l° n & es t> P ut a cross after the last line. If 

2.2 the last line is the longest, put a cross after the 

first line. If the first line is the longest, put a 

circle in front of the middle line. 



Value 



No. 13 

Three men have to walk to a town ten miles 
away. Each man carries a load. The first car- 
ries 25 pounds, the second 30 pounds, and the 
3 j uc third 40 pounds. The heavier the load the slower 
the man travels. In order that they may arrive 
in town at the same time, which man must start 
first? 



No. 14 

My house faces the street. If a boy passes my 
Value house going to school in the morning, walking to- 
3.5 ward the rising sun, with my house on his right 
hand, which direction does my house face? 



No. 15 

Fred has eight marbles. Mary said to him: 

Value "If you will give me four of your marbles, I will 

4.8 have three times as many as you will then have." 

How many marbles do they both have together? 



138 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

No. 16 

If in the following words e comes right after a 

more times than e comes just after i, then put a 

Value line under each word containing an e and an i, 

8-9 but if e comes just before a more times than 

right after i, then put a line under each word 

containing an a and an e. 

receive feather teacher believe 

By the end of the first year the child should have attained : 

1. Ability to recognize all letters of the alphabet easily 
at sight in any combination, and know the elementary sounds 
they represent. 

2. Ability to recognize and sound the simpler phonograms 
and employ them with fair facility. 

3. Ability to read easily and write understanding^ the 
material of three or more primers and first readers. 

4. The memorizing of from eight to twelve poems suited 
to his grade. 

By the end of the third year the pupil should have mas- 
tered practically all the mechanical phases of reading. By 
the use of phonograms he should be able to pronounce new 
words of reasonable difficulty. He should know and be 
guided by the use of periods, commas, exclamation points 
and question marks. He should have become sufficiently 
familiar with the use and order of words in sentences that 
he is able to read any material within his understanding 
and not exceeding his vocabulary with ease and enjoyment. 
If this standard is met, the way is then open through the 
remaining grades to place chief stress on the content side 
of the reading. 

Skill in oral expression. — From the beginning of the 
child's reading, skill should be sought in oral expression. 
To this end there must first of all be ideas to express — the 



READING AND LITERATURE 139 

thoughts and feelings to be expressed must be fully com- 
prehended. Next, the child must be made to realize that he 
is to tell to others what he reads. These two simple prin- 
ciples, if carefully carried out, will save much of the ex- 
pressionless and monotonous word-pronouncing that passes 
as reading. 

The teacher must proceed with patience, however, remem- 
bering that the child's brain but slowly sets up the connec- 
tions between the eye center and the speech center. Natu- 
ralness of tone, good articulation and enunciation, and 
freedom from unpleasant mannerisms should be striven for 
from the first. It is much easier to form them than to 
reform in all such matters. 

Material — What to Teach 

The material for elementary reading should be selected 
with two fundamental principles in mind: 

1. It should have interesting content and attractive liter- 
ary form. 

2. It should be adapted to the age, interests, and present 
experiences of the readers. 

Reading material to possess content. — In a number of 
the older methods of teaching reading, the emphasis on 
word mastery and skill in the use of phonograms was so 
strong that everything else was sacrificed to this end. We 
then had pages of such sentences as, "A fat cat had a bad 
rat." "A sad man had a hat." We have come to see, how- 
ever, that such empty and senseless material is not best even 
for the beginners, where phonograms are being learned. 
Indeed it is precisely at this stage, where the mechanics 
are being mastered, that we must keep the child from form- 
ing the impression that reading is just the learning of so 



140 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

many words. From the very first the pupil should be led 
to think of reading as consisting of interesting stories and 
beautiful poems, the mechanics being necessary as a means 
for getting at this desirable content. The English language is 
marvelously rich in real literature adapted to children, which 
makes the problem of selecting reading material reasonably 
simple. 

Material to be adapted to age and interest. — Probably 
nowhere in the whole curriculum is greater care needed to 
adapt the material to age and ability than in elementary 
reading and literature. The principle so strongly urged in 
Chapter VIII must be applied here : The needs of the child 
and not the literary quality of the material must determine 
the selection. The first question is not whether a certain 
story or poem is of literary merit, but whether it is within 
the range of the child's capacity and interest. If not, then 
not only will its literary merit fail to impress, but the child 
will lose his enthusiasm for reading, and we shall but culti- 
vate distaste where we sought to develop taste. Not the 
literary standards of adults, but the response of the child, 
then, is to be the first criterion of the suitableness of ma- 
terial for the grade where it is offered. Having said this, 
let us hasten to add that plenty of adaptable material of 
real literary merit may be found for children's reading. 

Sources of first-grade material. — Several different 
sources are open from which to select material : 

1. Stories known by the children or told them by the 
teacher. 

2. Games and plays. 

3. Nature study and other general lessons. 

The use of stories. The importance of the story in teach- 
ing children to read can hardly be overestimated. Oral 
stories stimulate the child's interest in such material and 



READING AND LITERATURE 141 

make him want to read, so that he may enjoy the stories 
for himself. They show him the practical use of reading 
and convince him that he needs reading. They also sup- 
ply the nucleus of interest necessary to make the learning 
of the mechanics of reading a pleasurable activity, instead 
of a dry task. No teacher is fully equipped to teach ele- 
mentary reading who does not know a wide range of suit- 
able stories and possess skill in telling them. Besides the 
stories told the children, still others may be read to them. 

Stories to be told or read. There are so many good sto- 
ries that there is no one best list. The following are ap- 
proved by primary teachers i 1 

The Ginger Bread Man The Sleeping Princess 

Snow-white and Rose-red The Two Little Cooks 

The Elves and the Shoe- The Crow and the Pitcher 

maker Who Ate Dolly's Dinner 

The Talkative Tortoise The Christmas Story — Bible 

The Little Fir Tree The Snow-drop 

The Boy Who Cried Wolf Cinderella 

The Little Red Hen Noah and the Ark 

The Little Hero of Harlem The Four Little Pigs 

The Hare and the Tortoise Little Red Riding Hood 

Henny-Penny The Wren and the Bear 

Selling Timothy Likes Simple Simon 
The Sheep and the Pig 

Stories and poems to be memorised. The children should 
memorize from eight to twelve such stories and poems as 
the following during the first year : 

My Shadow, Stevenson 
Little Boy Blue, Mother Goose 
Little Bo-Peep, Mother Goose 
Bed in Summer, Stevenson 
At the Seaside, Stevenson 
Jack and Jill, Mother Goose 



1 See list of books for the teacher, page 156. 



142 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Cradle Hymn, Luther 

Minnie and Mamie, Tennyson 

/ Love Little Pussy, Taylor 

Birdie With the Yellozv Bill, Stevenson 

The House That Jack Built, Mother Goose 

Who Has Seen the Wind, Rossetti 

The Rain, Stevenson 

Sleep, Baby, Sleep, From the German 

Tzvinkle, Twinkle, Little Star, Taylor 

Robin Red-breast, Mother Goose 

Little Drops of Water, Brewer 

The Dandelion, Author Unknown 

Milking Time, Rossetti 

Material originating in *games and plays. Reading mate- 
rial easily and naturally correlates with the games and plays 
which children know or should be taught. For example, 
after the children are able to play readily Simon says 
"Thumbs up" and "Thumbs dozvn," the teacher can write 
"Thumbs up" and "Thumbs down" on cards, and have the 
game played by flashing the cards before the class. The in- 
genious teacher will suit devices to many games and plays 
to introduce action, competition and the need for alertness 
and attention into the learning of new words and sentences. 

Finding material in nature study, etc. In similar way the 
every-day experiences of the school can be made to supply 
material for the reading class. A nature lesson on opening 
buds or falling leaves, a sudden rain beating on the windows, 
the clouds floating by, the bees hovering over the flowers — 
these and many such topics catch the child's interest and 
stimulate his expression. They are therefore a good basis 
for the introduction of new words and for sentences and 
stories reviewing words already presented. 

What to teach about the mechanics of reading. The best 
primary teachers of the present day have declared against 
diacritics and excessive use of phonics in the first grade. 



READING AND LITERATURE 143 

Phonic work should not be started until the child has had 
some two months in school and might be delayed most of the 
first half year without loss. Diacritics should not be taught 
the first year, though the long and the short sound of each 
vowel should be given without the marks. A considerable 
range of the phonograms (depending on the primers or read- 
ers in use) should be given during the last half of the year. 
The letters of the alphabet and the elementary sound values 
should be taught as the reading ability progresses. The drill 
in phonics should be at a separate period and not combined 
with reading and literature. 

Second-grade material.— -Opinions differ as to whether 
the second year of reading should be based chiefly on short 
stories and poems, or on a longer production which may 
continue for a number of weeks or months. Many schools 
use Hiawatha for second-year material. This question is, 
however, not so important as that of selecting the material, 
long or short, so that it will fit into the present experiences 
of the children or awaken in them experiences for which 
they are ready. The teacher will usually have as the basis 
for her work one or more readers adopted as a standard. An 
abundance of supplemental material should also be pre- 
sented. The child learns to read by reading, and should be 
given much easy matter full of interest to him and of value 
for itself. 

Stories to be read or told to the children. The oral story 
will still play an important part in the reading work of the 
second grade. The following have been found to be adapted 
to second-grade children: 

Aladdin The Fisherman and His 
David and Goliath Wife 

The Sun and the Wind The Frog King 

Beauty and the Beast Hans in Luck 

Raggylug Little Black Sambo 



144 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Why the Morning Glory The Gray Goose 

Climbs Tithy-Mouse and Tathy- 
The Tale of the Littlest Mouse 

Mouse Grandmother's Curtains 

The Stork and the Dog The Fox and the Crow 

The Wonderful Porridge The House in the Wood 

Pot Legend of the Sunflower 

The Sun's Sisters The Golden Touch 

Legend of the Woodpecker Baucis and Philemon 

A Christmas Legend Indian Legend of the Robin 

The Pig Brother Belling the Cat 

The Queen Bee The Traveling Musicians 

The Story of Persephone 

Stories and poems to be memorised. From ten to fifteen 
stories and poems such as the following should be memorized 
during the year : 

My Ship, Stevenson 

The Mountain and the Squirrel, Emerson 

The Wind, Stevenson 

The Land of the Counterpane, Stevenson 

The First Christmas, Poulsson 

Sweet and Low, Tennyson 

My Bed is a Boat, Stevenson 

The Owl and the Pussy Cat, Lear 

Jemima Brown, Richards 

The Lost Doll, Kingsley 

Extremes, Riley 

The Tree, Bjornson 

Spring, Thaxter 

The Monkey and the Crocodile, Richards 

Foreign Children, Stevenson 

Many other stories and poems are, of course, available for 
children of this grade. Before the child is asked to commit 
a production be sure that he understands it and likes it. 
Committing such material to memory should be a joy instead 
of a dry task. 



READING AND LITERATURE 145 

Mechanics. On the side of the mechanics of reading the 
work of the second grade will stress the sounds of letters, 
and phonics. The chief phonograms will be developed and 
applied to new words as they appear in the readers or outside 
material. The great thing in this connection is so to organize 
the work that the phonograms learned are put at work in the 
learning of new words. The drill given should also aim at 
clear enunciation and articulation with a view to improving 
oral speech and reading. 

Attention should now be called to punctuation marks, and 
their names learned. From this time on they should in- 
creasingly become a help in both silent and oral reading. 

The third-grade material. — Besides the standard reader, 
several sets of supplementary readers should be available. 
During this year one or more longer poems or stories should 
be read. Hiawatha and an adaptation of Robinson Crusoe 
are most used for this purpose. Such reading trains the 
child in sustained memory and interest, besides developing 
the idea of wider situations and more complete activities 
than are revealed in shorter stories and poems. However, 
the shorter stories and poems are not to be omitted from the 
reading course. 

Stories to be told or read to the children. The story tell- 
ing should continue. Not only do the stories give enjoyment, 
but they stimulate the imagination, and serve to develop 
taste for good reading. Many of them have a distinct moral 
value, and all together help to train the reading habit. The 
following are a few of the many stories available for third- 
grade use : 

Robinson Crusoe The Ugly Duckling 

Sinbad the Sailor The Pine Tree 

The Story of Wyhi Uncle Remus ( Selected 

The Frog and the Ox Stories) 



146 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Spinning Song (Words- The Spider and the Fly 

worth) The Spindle, Needle and 
The Anxious Leaf Shuttle 

The Brave Tin Soldier The Crow and the Fox 

Tubal Cain The Sleeping Beauty 

Rumple-S tilts-Kin Puss in Boots 

Who Killed the Otter's Reynard the Fox (Selected 

Babies? Stories) 

The Brahmin, the Tiger and The Little Gray Grand- 

the Jackal mother 

Toomai of the Elephants Little Sunshine 

(Kipling) The Gold Beads 

The Judgment of Midas Jack and the Bean Stalk 

The Oak Tree and the Tim- Tom Thumb 

ber The Golden Bird 

Stories and poems to be memorised. Besides reviewing 
the stories and poems previously memorized, third-grade 
children should add not less than ten during the year. The 
following offer good material, and are of the type that should 
be used in preference to the cheap rhymes and senseless 
verse so often imposed upon children for "special days" or 
programs : 

The Twenty-third Psalm, the Bible 

Autumn Fires, Stevenson 

The Land of Nod, Stevenson 

Do Not Look for Wrong or Evil, Cary 

The Dutch Lullaby, Field 

How the Leaves Come Down, Coolidge 

Marching Song, Stevenson 

One, Two, Three, Bunner 

America, Smith 

The Brook, Tennyson 

What the Winds Bring, Steadman 

My Ship and I, Stevenson 

The Blue Bird, Miller 

Good Night and Good Morning, Houghton 

Father, We Thank Thee, Anon. 



READING AND LITERATURE 147 

Library material. Almost from the beginning of the 
course in reading the work should be correlated with the 
local library where such is available. The library should be 
encouraged to purchase books suitable for children, and to 
make it easy for children to secure and make use of the 
books. The children should be led by the teacher and the 
librarian to form the library habit. The third-grade child 
should have learned how to draw books from the library, 
the rules to be observed, and should have some knowledge 
of the most interesting books available in the local library. 
The following are some books for the library that are es- 
pecially useful for the first three grades : 

The Golden Goose Book, Brooks 

A Book of Nonsense for Children, Lear 

Little People of the Snow, Muller 

JEsop's Fables, Bott 

Folk-Lore Stories and Proverbs, Wiltse 

Fairy Stories and Fables, Baldwin 

Stories of Mother Goose Village, Bigham 

Little Folks of Other Lands, Chaplin & Humphrey 

Nature Myths, Holbrook 

Peter Rabbit, Potter 

Squirrel Nut kin, Potter 

The Farm Book, Smith 

The Chicken Book, Smith 

Andersen's Fairy Tales, Stickney 

Fifty Famous Stories Retold, Baldwin 

Adventures of a Brownie, Craik 

Miss Muffetfs Christmas Party, Crothers 

The Sandman, Jewett 

Stories of Indian Children, Husted 

Heart of Oak Books, Norton 

Five Minute Stories, Richards 

The Story Hour, Wiggin and Smith 

Mechanics. As stated earlier in the chapter, the me- 
chanics of reading should be practically mastered by the end 



148 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

of the third year. The child should in this year, therefore, 
complete the phonics which may remain from the previous 
grades, and should learn the diacritical marks. He should 
be made entirely familiar with the function of punctuation 
marks and learn to use them as a help in reading. Drills in 
articulation and enunciation should be continued, and bad 
habits of expression corrected. 

This does not mean that no further attention will need 
to be paid to mechanics after the third grade. Review of 
the harder points and much practise to secure skill in expres- 
sion will of course be required. But from this time on if the 
previous teaching has been good, chief attention can be given 
to content and appreciation. 

Fourth-grade material. — The child has for three years 
been learning to read; he should now be ready to read 
to learn. While he has by this time read much good mate- 
rial, yet constant attention has been required to the mechan- 
ical side. By the beginning of the fourth grade the emphasis 
should shift. Thought, feeling, interpretation, enjoyment 
in reading are now the chief ends. Experience should now 
broaden and a sense of values develop rapidly through the 
reading and literature. 

Sources of reading material. In most schools the standard 
readers will supply the basis of material. There should 
either be several sets of readers, or better still, an abundant 
supply of graded classics suitable for this grade. The 
teacher should not hesitate to omit stories or poems from the 
readers which seem unsuited to the pupils, and substitute for 
them better material. 

Especially should children now have an opportunity to 
read for themselves the stories they have heard told or read 
earlier in the course. The repetition will do no harm. On 
the other hand, familiarity with the story will aid in the 



READING AND LITERATURE 149 

reading and its enjoyment ; it will also help in learning new 
words, through their use in a familiar context. 

The library should at this stage be generously drawn upon. 
If children are allowed occasionally to select a story from 
a library book and read it to the class it will add interest and 
aid in developing the right attitude toward the library as a 
source of readable material. Children's magazines, and such 
current material as gives account of inventions, the con- 
struction of various articles to be made by the children, or 
the different industries, should furnish their share of matter. 

Stories and poems to be read or told to the children. Oral 
stories should still continue. Since the child is now able to 
read for himself, the teacher's part as a story teller may de- 
crease somewhat, but it should not drop out. There is small 
danger of hearing too many good stories, either for their 
real enjoyment or to stimulate the reading of stories for 
one's self. The following are suitable for this grade : 

Robin Hood Prince Cherry 

The Gold in the Orchard Wonder Book 

Little Lame Prince The Dag da's Harp 

Abou Ben Adhem Kipling's Just-So Stories 

The Burning of Rice Fields The Buck Wheat 

How the Robin's Breast Apple Seed John 

Became Red The Two Flags 

The Bell of Atri Sheltering Wings 

St. George and the Dragon Three Feathers 

The Jabberwocky Lochinvar 

Snowdrop Dick Whittington and His 
The Monkey and the Chest- Cat 

nuts Robin Hood Ballads 

Beauty and the Beast The Gorgon's Head 

Bible Heroes, Jacob, Joseph, The Chimcera 

Samuel, David St. George and the Dragon 
The Miraculous Pitcher 



150 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

To be memorised. Continue the work in memorizing, let- 
ting the child's interest be an important factor in selecting 
the material : 

The Thirty-sixth Psalm, 1-9, the Bible 

My Treasures, Stevenson 

The Unseen Playmate, Stevenson 

The Norse Lullaby, Field 

Star Spangled Banner, Key 

Little John Bottlejohn, Richards 

Lullaby for Titania, Shakespeare 

The Children's Hour, Longfellow 

Foreign Lands, Stevenson 

The Brown Thrush, Larcom 

Seven Times One, Ingelow 

Dream March, Riley 

Sweet and Low, Tennyson 

The Brook, Tennyson 

Pirate Story, Stevenson 

Library material. The library should be an increasingly 
larger factor in the reading course as the child progresses 
from grade to grade. The following represent the types of 
books that should be available for the fourth grade. The 
teacher can often work with the librarian to see that needed 
books are added to the local library list : 

Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Carroll 

Granny's Wonderful Chair, Browne 

Wonder Book, Hawthorne 

A Boy on a Farm, Abbott 

Lulu's Library, Alcott 

Little Lord Fauntleroy, Burnett 

The Story of Siegfried, Baldwin 

Greek Heroes, Kingsley 

Story of the Iliad, Church 

Story of the Odyssey, Church 

Jason's Quest, Lowell 

Adventures of Ulysses, Lamb 

The Tangleivood Tales, Hawthorne 



READING AND LITERATURE 151 

Norse Stories, Mabie 
Rollo Books, Abbott 
Play Days, Jewett 
Wigwam Stories, Judd 
Jungle Books, Kipling 
Ways of Wood Folk, Long 
Pussy Willow Stories, Stowe 
Five Little Peppers, Sidney 
Adventures of a Brownie, Mulock 

Mechanics. Apply phonetics to the mastery of new 
words. Review and apply diacritical marks. Begin use of 
dictionary for pronunciation. Teach how to find words 
quickly and easily, and to pronounce from marks. Do not 
depend much on dictionary for definitions at this stage. The 
meaning of a word can be learned better in connection with 
its use in the context. Correct any bad habits in oral read- 
ing. Work for good expression. 

Fifth- and sixth-grade material. — By the time children 
have reached this stage their interests, if they have been well 
trained, are surprisingly broad. They know something of 
the world of nature, of industry, of history, of literature, 
and many things besides. There is, therefore, almost no end 
to the range of material adapted to their reading. Here as 
before the great problem is to give matter that is stimulating 
and elevating, and yet within the child's capacity. Nothing 
is ever gained, but much is lost, by forcing upon children 
literary productions, however good in themselves, before 
they are ready for them. 

Professors Bobbitt, Boyce and Perkins, in a study made 
of fifty courses of study representing thirty-six different 
cities and fourteen different states, found that the following 
were the readings most frequently used in the fourth and 
fifth grades •} 



1 See Elementary School Teacher, December, 1913. 



152 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Black Beauty, Sewell 

King of the Golden River, Ruskin 

Wonder Book, Hawthorne 

Swiss Family Robinson, Wyss 

T angle-wood Tales, Hawthorne 

Jungle Books, Kipling 

Fanciful Tales, Stockton 

Little Women, Alcott 

Wild Annuals I Have Known, Seton 

Just-So Stories, Kipling 

Merry Adventures of Robin Hood, Pyle 

Norse Stories Retold from Eddas, Mabie 

Ten Boys, Andrews 

Little Lord Fauntleroy, Burnett 

In the Days of Giants, Brown 

Uncle Remus, Harris 

Wilderness Ways, Long 

Jackanapes, Ewing 

Greek Heroes, Kingsley 

Story of King Arthur and His Knights, Pyle 

North America, Carpenter 

Through the Looking-Glass, Carroll 

Story of Ulysses, Clarke 

Story of the Odyssey, Church 

Two Little Confederates, Page 

Lobo, Rag and Vixen, Seton 

Arabian Nights 

Hans Br inker, Dodge 

Little Men, Alcott 

Rip Van Winkle, Irving 

Heidi, Spyri 

King Arthur and His Knights, Radford 

Gulliver's Travels, Swift 

Story of a Bad Boy, Aldrich 

Hoosier Schoolmaster, Eggleston 

Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, Burroughs 

Under the Lilacs, Alcott 

Europe, Carpenter 



READING AND LITERATURE 153 

Magazines, newspapers and journals of current events 
should have an increasing use as reading material. 

Stories and poems to be told or read. The oral story work 
should continue but with less time devoted to it. The chil- 
dren themselves may be allowed, as a part of the language 
work, to tell short stories. They may also occasionally be 
asked to read a story or poem to the class. The type of 
material adapted to these uses has been sufficiently indi- 
cated in the preceding pages. 

To be memorized. Do not let the habit of memorizing 
beautiful poems and stories lapse. It should continue 
throughout life. 

The First Psalm, Bible 

The Twenty-fourth Psalm, Bible 

Today, Carlyle 

The Japanese Lullaby, Field 

The Landing of the Pilgrims, Herman 

Christmas Bells, Longfellow 

The Daffodils, Wordsworth 

The One-Hundredth Psalm, Bible 

The Village Blacksmith, Longfellow 

The Mountain and the Squirrel, Emerson 

Material for the library. Keep the library habit growing. 
A growing desire to read good books is the very best evi- 
dence of the success of the course in reading. Many such 
books as the following should be available and should be 
used: 

Little Women, Alcott 

Little Men, Alcott 

Rose in Bloom, Alcott 

Peter and Wendy, Barry 

Boyville, Gunckel 

Little Colonel Series, Johnston 

Secrets of the Woods, Long 

Beautiful Joe, Saunders 



154 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Black Beauty, Sewell 

Old Deer field Stories, Smith 

Fanciful Tales, Stockton 

Story of Patsy, Wiggin 

Old-Fashioned Girl, Alcott 

The Story of a Bad Boy, Aldrich 

For the Honor of the School, Barbour 

In the Boyhood of Lincoln, Butterworth 

Story of the Rhine gold, Chapin 

The Last of the Mohicans, Cooper 

Boots and SoAdles, Custer 

The Hoosier Schoolmaster, Eggleston 

The Night Before Thanksgiving, S. O. Jewett 

The Adventures of Ulysses, Lamb 

Life of Robert Louis Stevenson, Overton 

The Boy Lincoln, Stoddard 

Gulliver's Tales, Swift 

Being a Boy, Warner 

Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm, Wiggin 

Seventh- and eighth-grade material. — Probably by the 
seventh grade and certainly by the eighth grade the serial 
school readers should be completed and give way to literary 
wholes as the basis for study. It is to be remembered that 
the age of adolescence has now arrived with its broadening 
social interests, and its new outlook upon life. Literature 
with a heroic strain and a dramatic movement will exert a 
strong appeal. Sentiment is also deepening and the more 
intimate values of life and its relations are asserting their 
claims. The practical and vocational interests are becoming 
more definite and must have their share of attention. 

In reading the literary masterpieces it is to be recognized 
that the object sought is not close literary inspection, but 
appreciation, interest, enjoyment and the broadening and 
enriching of experience. Current magazine and journal 
material should have a wider use than it usually has in these 
grades, both from its own intrinsic value and because of the 



READING AND LITERATURE 155 

possibility of helping in this way to form good reading 
habits. It is more difficult for the teacher to use this type 
of material than that found in the text-books, but it is worth 
the extra effort. 

The material most commonly read in the seventh and 
eighth grades as found by Bobbitt, Boyce and Perkins is as 
follows : 

Tales from Shakespeare, Lamb 

Christmas Carol, Dickens 

Snow Bound, Whittier 

Miles Standish, Longfellow 

Evangeline, Longfellow 

Sketch Book, Irving 

Birds and Bees, Burroughs 

Last of the Mohicans, Cooper 

Story of Siegfried, Baldwin 

The Spy, Cooper 

Autobiography, Franklin 

Grandfather's Chair, Hawthorne 

Great Stone Face, Hawthorne 

Sharp Eyes, Burroughs 

David Cop per field, Dickens 

The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, Irving 

Captains Courageous, Kipling 

Horatius at the Bridge, Macaulay 

Two Years Before the Mast, Dana 

Prince and the Pauper, Clemens 

Story of Roland, Baldwin 

Pilgrim's Progress, Bunyan 

The Man Without a Country, Hale 

Lady of the Lake, Scott 

Julius Ccesar, Shakespeare 

Treasure Island, Stevenson 

Cricket on the Hearth, Dickens 

Ivanhoe, Scott 

Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare 

Tom Brown's School Days, Hughes 

Vision of Sir Launfal, Lowell 

Uncle Tom's Cabin, Stowe 



156 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Material to omit. — It is as important to know what to 
omit as what to select for children's reading. Material that 
is beyond their grasp or that does not meet the response of 
any interest not only has failed of its purpose, but has served 
to dull the edge of taste and desire for reading. For ex- 
ample, there are parts of Idylls of the King in which there 
are sentiments yet unknown to the child. Thanatopsis, 
which is taught in many seventh and eighth grades, presents 
a philosophy of life (and death) beyond the grasp of the 
child's understanding. Many of Hawthorne's stories are en- 
veloped in gloom, and too depressing for this age. We are 
to be guided by the principle already stated, the child and 
not the excellence of the literary material is to be our cri- 
terion. 

Books for the teacher. — Either through the school or 
local library, or else by personal ownership the teacher of 
elementary reading should have accessible such books as the 
following : 

For the Story Teller, Bailey 

Stories of the East, Baldwin 

Open Sesame (3 vols.), Bellamy and Goodwin 

Merry Animal Tales, Bigham - 

Hozv to tell Stories, Bryant 

Stories to Tell, Bryant 

Poems That Every Child Should Know, Burt 

Fairy Tales, edited by Jerrold in Children's 

Classics Series 
Child's Garden of Verse, R. L. Stevenson 
Mother Goose Rhymes, Wheeler 
Mother Goose, The Complete, E. F. Betts 
Heart of Oak Books, I and II, Norton 
Love Songs of Childhood, Eugene Field 
Nonsense Book, Edward Lear c 
Story-Telling Poems, Olcott 



READING AND LITERATURE 157 



Organisation and Presentation 

Much of the success of teaching reading depends on skilful 
presentation. This is because the interpretation of literature 
has so large a personal element in it. The kindling eye, the 
expressive face, the interested manner, the well modulated 
and appealing voice are all vital factors in making the story 
or poem live before the class. All these things are also in 
some degree contagious, and, consciously or unconsciously 
to the pupils, tend to shape their standards and determine the 
quality of their own expression. Even in teaching the me- 
chanics of reading the personal factor is of the greatest im- 
portance. 

Starting the beginners. — When our grandfathers went 
to school there was no trouble about the method by which 
they should learn to read. There was but one method — they 
first learned their letters, then built these into syllables (a-b 
ab, e-b eb, i-b ib, etc.), next made these into zvords, and 
finally assembled the words into sentences. It was supposed 
that, since the letter was the smallest of the divisions of our 
language, it must therefore be the most easily learned, and 
the syllable next, and so on. This system gave us the alpha- 
bet, or a-b-c, method. It was a logical instead of a psycho- 
logical method; it considered the material instead of the 
child. 

The next step in primary method (if not in time, at least 
in psychological sequence) was to conceive that the child 
should first be given, not letters, but certain sounds, or 
phonograms, and then trained to build these into words. So 
we had various types of phonetic methods. Having learned 
the sound of c (with a "collar" on!), the sound of b, of h, 
etc., and also having learned certain "families" as the ab, the 



158 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

at, the ad family, the child then proceeded to build his words 
as he required them. Or, meeting a new word, he took it 
apart into its phonograms and thereby knew how to pro- 
nounce it. 

This also was a logical instead of a psychological method, 
for the reason that the child's first contact with speech is not 
in the form of dis-membered words. It is rather with whole 
living words used to express some interesting thought. The 
realization of this simple fact has led to recent sentence-zvord 
methods, in which words are learned as parts of the sen- 
tences used in familiar speech by the children themselves. 
From this starting point, phonograms and individual let- 
ters are learned. This method is psychological, in that it 
follows the order of the child's natural approach to printed 
speech. It is undoubtedly better than either of the other 
two because it is psychological. 

The same results in knowledge, it is to be noted, may be 
reached by any one of the three methods ; namely, a knowl- 
edge of letters, phonograms, words, sentences. The differ- 
ence is one of organisation, or mode of approach. And this 
makes all the difference in the methods and their efficiency. 

Prevention and cure of bad reading habits. — The best 
remedy for bad habits is to prevent their formation. This 
can be done in the matter of reading without great difficulty 
if the child is started right. As already suggested it is easier 
to form than to reform. The habit of expressionless dron- 
ing, of mere word-saying, of singsonging monotone, of in- 
audible mumbling, can be prevented in most children. 

Most of these faults originally come from over-mechaniz- 
ing the reading. The child is asked to read before he can 
read. At a time when his thought must be full of word-rec- 
ognition he is called upon for thought-expression. The re- 
sult is that he only expresses words. He does the same thing 



READING AND LITERATURE 159 

that the high-school student does when he attempts to read 
Latin that he does not know. 

The Remedy? Let the child at the beginning be fully 
familiar with the entire sentence or story before he is asked 
to read it. Let him know all the words. Let him know all 
the thought, but not have it committed to memory. Then 
let him tell the story from the printed page. Give him 
thought that he knows, give him words that he knows, and 
then call for the expression. Finally use these words in new 
context until they arc recognized anywhere. This method 
of procedure will require that much oral story work shall 
precede reading, so that children will be reading very famil- 
iar materiaL It will require that reading material growing 
out of games or school lessons shall first be made familiar 
in oral form before it is given the child to be expressed as 
reading. It is safe to conclude that lack of expression in 
a child's reading commonly comes from one or more of three 
factors : 

1. Lack of ideas to express, the meaning not grasped, 

2. The mechanics so unfamiliar as to demand excessive 
attention. 

3. Shyness, embarrassment, or other hindering mental 
attitude. 

It is to be understood, of course, that bad habits once 
formed will require much patient correction and practise for 
their cure. They must not be neglected. 

Dramatization. — The child's instinct for dramatization 
should be freely utilized in teaching reading. Freedom from 
self-consciousness and the willingness to undertake the rep- 
resentation of almost any character make the child an ideal 
actor. Children who have acted out Cinderella, Belling the 
Cat, Midas and the Golden Touch, speaking the parts as they 



160 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

act them, will hardly fail to put expression into their reading 
of them. To arrange for such dramatization, or even part- 
reading, requires some time and trouble on the part of the 
teacher, but it pays. 

Appreciation and enjoyment. — It can not be too 
strongly urged that one of the chief aims of teaching read- 
ing is to develop the habit of reading. This can be done only 
if the reading actually done yields enjoyment. Our method 
of teaching must be such therefore that the interesting and 
enjoyable things are brought out, and that nothing is done 
which will deaden the interest or kill the enjoyment. 

This point of view suggests that we shall not aim to make 
literary critics of our pupils by stressing chiefly the struc- 
ture, the mechanics or the style of the production. We 
shall not even trouble them too much with irrelevant de- 
tails about the life of the authors. Some of the ways in 
which we may help increase the child's enjoyment in what 
he reads are the following: 

1. Whet the appetite with interesting bits of the story in 
assigning the lesson. 

2. Ask questions about persons, motives or events. 

3. Ask children to decide which character they would 
rather be and why. 

4. Ask class to think how the story might have been 
made to end differently, etc. 

5. Be sure that no too-difficult word, thought or allusion 
is left unexplained in the assignment. 

6. Give the story its interesting historical or social setting 
when this can be done. 

The appeal to imagination. — The central factor in in- 
terpreting and enjoying literature is imagination. Not until 
the objects, actions and situations described are made real 
by this picturing power of the mind do their full value 



READING AND LITERATURE .161 

and meaning appeal to the reader. Unless as one reads 
Evangeline or The Vision of Sir Launfal the pictures rise 
in the mind, the significance will have dropped out and the 
throbbing scenes of life and action become but so many- 
dead words. 

The teacher can greatly stimulate the child's imagination 
by asking a question here and offering a suggestion there 
that will serve to vivify the situation described. A helpful 
device is to ask the class to shut their eyes and see the for- 
est, or the ocean, or the event with their mind's eyes; or 
to hear the sounds with their mind's ears, etc. Asking for 
details of color, distance, direction and so on will still fur- 
ther aid the imaging. Often an expressive reading of a 
section by the teacher will help the children form their men- 
tal pictures. Pity the child to whom falls the calamity of 
having a teacher who, himself untouched by the imagery 
of a poem, makes its reading a matter of dead routine ! 

Oral and silent reading. — The older standard of read- 
ing was chiefly an oral standard. As books have multiplied 
and other reading matter increased, however, most people 
read silently far more than aloud. This has led us to see 
that our children should have more definite training and also 
more practise in silent reading. According to the best judg- 
ment now available the proportion of oral and silent reading 
should be about as follows : 

First grade — Oral, 80 per cent. ; silent, 20 per cent. 
Fifth grade — Oral, 50 per cent. ; silent, 50 per cent. 
Eighth grade — Oral, 20 per cent. ; silent, 80 per cent. 

Of course it is not meant that these proportions shall be 
more than approximate. They show, however, a steady 
change in emphasis from oral to silent reading through the 
grades. 



162 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Home reading. — The larger use of silent reading has 
added greatly to the importance of reading in the home. 
This phase of the reading course should be encouraged in 
every possible way, for it adds to the amount of time well 
spent by the child, and also gives him a pleasant occupation 
that will tend to keep him in the home circle. Many of the 
books of the reading course can well be read aloud at the 
family fireside. 

The use of the memory.— If the child is to enjoy and 
profit by the committing of stories and poems, he should 
be taught how to use his memory. Simply to tell a child 
to "learn this poem by heart" is a heartless and inefficient 
way to make an assignment. Committing to memory is an 
art, and it has to be learned. The following rules should 
guide in the use of the memory : 

i. Commit by wholes instead of by fragments. If a poem 
of several stanzas is to be learned, go over them all. Then 
go over them again, and again. This method has been found 
by careful experiment to be much more effective than to 
learn one stanza at a time and then piece them together. 
Of course certain troublesome places may need special at- 
tention. 

2. Try to picture and make real the persons, the events, 
or the actions involved. It is easier to make the words to 
be committed attach to such realities than merely to one an- 
other as empty words. A production learned in this way 
will also have meaning. 

3. Review frequently until the matter is thoroughly fixed. 
Material that is barely learned will not stay learned. If 
it is gone over at intervals of a few days for a time it will 
become much more secure. 



READING AND LITERATURE 163 



QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Formulate the aims of reading, grade by grade, under the 
three heads used in the chapter for defining aim. Then estimate 
your points of greatest success and greatest difficulty as measured by 
these aims. 

2. Have you any pupils whose attitude toward reading and liter- 
ature is indifferent? If so, can you locate the difficulty, (1) in the 
adaptability of the subject-matter, (2) in your method of presenta- 
tion, or (3) in low-grade ability of the pupil? Have you discovered 
what such pupils like to read outside of school? 

3. Can you not secure one or more of the reading tests, such as 
the Kansas test or the Courtis test, and measure the ability of your 
pupils? Full directions accompany the blanks, and you can compare 
your pupils with those of other schools. Have your pupils the de- 
gree of skill asked for on page 138? If not, where does the fault lie? 

4. Outline your method of teaching beginners, and justify the 
plan you use. When do you begin phonics? Why should the lesson 
in phonics be separate from the reading lesson? What devices do 
you employ to secure careful articulation ? Clear enunciation ? Good 
expression? 

5. Suppose a fourteen-year-old boy asked you for a list of six 
books for a winter's reading, what would you recommend? For a 
fourteen-year-old girl? What use do you make of dramatization in 
teaching literature? Make a list of several good productions to 
dramatize in each grade. 

REFERENCES 

Chubb, The Teaching of English. Macmillan Co., New York. 

Briggs and Coffman, Reading in Public Schools. Row, Peterson 
& Co., Chicago. 

Mirick and Kendall, The Teaching of Reading. N. J. Depart- 
ment of Public Instruction. 

McMurry, Special Method in Reading. Macmillan Co., New 
York. 

Huey, Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. Macmillan Co., 
New York. 

Olcott, Children's Reading. Houghton Mifflin Co., New York. 

Hosic, Elementary Course in English. University of Chicago 
Press, Chicago. 



164 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Porter, Landor and MacClintock, Literature in the Elementary 
School. University of Chicago Press. 

Kelly, The Kansas Silent Reading Test. State Normal School, 
Emporia, Kansas. 

Judd, Report of Cleveland Foundation Survey. Russell Sage 
Foundation, New York. 

Courtis, Reading Tests. S. A. Courtis, Detroit, Mich. 



CHAPTER XI 

SPELLING 

WE have probably been less successful in teaching spell- 
ing than any other branch. Spelling is taught in 
every grade and in many high schools ; yet our children do 
not spell so well as we should like. They misspell many 
seemingly easy words and keep on misspelling them. They 
spell certain words correctly in their spelling classes, or even 
win medals on them in spelling contests, and then spell the 
same words incorrectly in their letters or other written 
work. Something needs to be done with our spelling. 

The Aim~-*Results Sought 

The purpose of teaching spelling is to enable one to spell 
correctly the words he puts into writing. In actual affairs 
one is never required to spell except when he writes, nor 
to spell words which he does not use in his writing vocab- 
ulary. Such words as he thus needs he must be able to spell 
accurately and with certainty. 

Knowledge required in spelling. — It is a waste of time, 
interest and efficiency for the child to learn the spelling 
of a large number of words which he will never use in his 
written vocabulary, or to learn words which he may finally 
need, long before he requires them. The average written 
vocabulary of a child finishing the eighth grade is only 
slightly more than two thousand words. This has been 
tested by examining a large number of manuscripts of chil- 
dren in the various grades in different schools. Yet the 
spelling books commonly used in our schools contain from 

165 



166 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

eight thousand to ten thousand or even fifteen thousand 
words — from four to seven times as many as the child will 
use. 

Surely the words that are in constant and common use 
are the words that first of all should claim our attention. 
These make up the lists in which all should become profi- 
cient. Our children should not be laboriously taught long, 
difficult and useless lists containing thousands of words 
which they are not yet ready to use, if indeed they ever 
employ them. The result of such a scattering of energy 
is so imperfect a mastery that many of the common words 
daily used in writing are misspelled. It is obvious that the 
first knowledge of spelling required is that of the common 
words used by people of all classes in their written com- 
munications with one another. The more difficult words and 
the words of technical meaning can then be learned as 
need for them arises. 

In general, the best time to learn to spell a word is when 
it is needed. To teach the child to spell from four to seven 
words which he does not require for every one word that 
he needs is a relic of several centuries ago when spelling 
was taught as an end in itself. 

The cultivation of attitudes. — Misspelling is so com- 
mon a fault in the written work that little is thought of it 
in many schools. It is accepted as a part of the necessary 
and inevitable unripeness of childish intelligence. In many 
cases the same words are missed over and over again. It 
is not so much misspelling as continued misspelling that 
should concern us. 

The child must come to have an interest and pride in 
correct spelling. He must develop a spelling conscience. 
Nor must this attach primarily to achievement in the spell- 
ing class or the spelling contest, but to every-day spelling 
shown in all forms of written work. Instead of taking with 
complacency the teacher's repeated correction of common 



SPELLING 167 

words frequently misspelled, the pupil must come to look 
on such slips with shame and humiliation. Children must 
be brought to see that the practical use of spelling as em- 
ployed in writing, and not the ability to "spell down" on a 
list of strange words is the final measure of spelling ability 
and the test by which one is judged in the world of affairs. 

Skills, to be attained.-— The skills to be sought through 
the teaching of spelling may be described under three prin- 
ciples, which have already been implied in the discussion : 

First — Skill is to be sought in the words comprising the 
child's vocabulary as against an extended list bearing no 
reference to the individual vocabulary. The skill needed 
is of the useful practical kind and not the ability merely 
to show off on miscellaneous lists of words. Children do 
not permanently retain the spelling of difficult words learned 
when they have no use for them. Further, the centering 
of the attention on such lists tends to minimize the impor- 
tance of spelling correctly in written work. Many children 
look upon the recitation period devoted to the spelling of 
desk-made lists as their "spelling" lesson and think but little 
of the fact that every manuscript they write is a far better 
test of their spelling skill. 

Second — The test of practical spelling skill is written, and 
not oral. It is the daily written work of the whole range 
of school lessons, and not in the exercises of the spelling 
class alone. Misspellings in all written work should there- 
fore be corrected and the troublesome words mastered, not 
once only but as often as is necessary. 

Third — Spelling must be mastered so thoroughly that it 
becomes wholly automatic. One who has to stop and think 
how to spell a word lacks skill in spelling, even if he may 
finally succeed in spelling the word correctly. Spelling 
should become second nature, a habit so well grounded that 
attention is not required. The mind is then left free for 
concentration upon the thought under consideration, arid is 



168 



CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 



not troubled with formal details. Hence the troublesome 
words should be repeated, reviewed and drilled upon until 
there is no possibility of continued error. 

The degree of skill which children of the various grades 
have reached in spelling in one hundred different school sys- 
tems of the United States has been carefully investigated by 
Doctor Leonard P. Ayres of the Russell Sage Foundation. 
It was found that an average of seventy per cent, of the 
words of the following lists were spelled correctly by the 
children of the respective grades. While such a list is not 
a final test of spelling ability, it will enable a teacher to com- 
pare her pupils in a general way with the average of Ameri- 
can children : (It is to be understood that children who can 
spell seven of the ten words for their grade are just up to the 
average.) 

Second Grade Third Grade Fourth Grade Fifth Grade 



foot 


fill 


forty- 


several 


get 


point 


rate 


leaving 


for 


state 


children 


publish 


horse 


ready- 


prison 


o'clock 


out 


almost 


title 


running 


well 


high 


getting 


known 


name 


event 


need 


secure 


room 


done 


throw 


wait 


left 


pass 


feel 


manner 


with 


Tuesday 


speak 


flight 


Sixth Grade 


Seventh 


Grade 


Eighth Grade 


decide 


district 




organization 


general 


consideration 


tariff 


too 


athletic 




emergency 


automobile 


distinguish 


corporation 


victim 


amendment 


cordially 


hospital 


liquor 




discussion 


neither 


experience 


appreciation 


toward 


receive 




decision 


business 


conference 


convenience 



SPELLING 169 



Subject-Matter — What to Teach 

It is one thing to say that the child should be taught the 
spelling of the words common to his vocabulary, and quite 
another thing to know just what words are included and 
what left out in this vocabulary. It is further true that the 
range of vocabulary varies greatly in different children. 
Now, since we must under present school conditions teach 
children in groups, it is evident that the spelling work can 
not be based precisely on the individual vocabularies. Nor 
perhaps would this method be best even if it were possible. 

The better plan is to teach as the foundation of spelling 
ability, a minimum list of words made up from a careful 
study of the vocabularies of many grade pupils. If we add 
to such a minimum list all the words misspelled by the child 
in his written work, the range of material will be sufficiently 
defined. 

A minimum list. — Doctor W. F. Jones 1 listed all the 
different words used by one thousand and fifty children 
in grades two to eight, inclusive, in the writing of seven 
thousand five hundred themes. He found that the largest 
single vocabulary was 2,812 words. The combined vocab- 
ulary of all the children contained 4,532 different words. 

Doctor Ayres 2 found that two thousand letters employed 
an aggregate vocabulary of only two thousand and one dif- 
ferent words. Cook and O'Shea 3 studied the personal let- 
ters written by thirteen adults containing two hundred thou- 
sand words and found the aggregate vocabulary to consist of 
five thousand two hundred different words. 

Other similar investigations have shown the same gen- 



1 Concrete Examination of the Material of English Spelling. 

2 The Spelling Vocabularies of Personal and Business Letters. 

3 The Child and His Spelling. 



170 



CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 



eral results. Doctor Ayres combined the results from a 
series of such studies and therefrom compiled a list of the 
one thousand commonest words. 1 This list should surely be 
mastered before finishing the elementary school. The list 
follows, the words being printed in the order of the fre- 
quency of their use (except that in some cases certain words 
were used the same number of times as other words) : 



the 


which 


out 


thank 


and 


dear 


them 


do 


of 


from 


him 


after 


to 


are 


more 


than 


I 


all 


about 


sir 


a 


me 


no 


last 


in 


so 


please 


house 


that 


one 


week 


just 


you 


if, 


night 


over 


for 


■ they 


their 


then 


it 


had 


other 


work 


was 


has 


up 


day 


is 


very 


our 


here 


will 


were 


good 


said 


as 


been 


say 


only 


have 


would 


could 


well 


not 


she 


who 


am 


with 


or 


may 


these 


be 


there 


letter 


tell 


your 


her 


make 


even 


at 


an 


write 


made 


we 


when 


thing 


know 


on 


time 


think 


year 


he 


go 


should 


before 


by 


some 


truly 


long 


but 


any 


now 


sincerely 


my 


can 


its 


shall 


this 


what 


two 


sent 


his 


send 


take 


us 



1 The One Thousand Commonest Words. 



SPELLING 



171 



give 


girl 


hour 


dress 


Mr. 


also 


children 


early 


like 


where 


don't 


either 


enclose 


while 


four 


end 


next 


did 


between 


except 


want 


little 


bill 


farther 


hope 


look 


certain 


heard 


love 


respectfully 


copy 


March 


men 


afternoon 


deal 


person 


old 


Miss 


director 


rather 


every 


those 


might 


water 


find 


too 


move 


written 


most 


man 


rain 


April 


such 


own 


small 


Christmas 


to-day 


receive 


summer 


country 


must 


soon 


together 


fact 


way 


once 


against 


herself 


first 


street 


clean 


immediate 


new 


ask 


decide 


marriage 


seem 


down 


issue 


May 


morning 


yet 


Mrs. 


provision 


school 


see 


near 


reason 


great 


since 


prompt 


slide 


wish 


cannot 


question 


story 


home 


help 


ring 


unfortunate 


feel 


away 


sit 


arrange 


glad 


course 


stamp 


awful 


never 


through 


turn 


complete 


three 


call 


winter 


fire 


much 


meet 


busy 


forget 


how 


people 


folks 


gave 


until 


another 


happy 


kill 


many 


number 


lake 


mere 


put 


place 


maybe 


nearly 


get 


Sunday 


obtain 


neither 


into 


use 


pass 


noon 


let 


church 


ran 


past 


yesterday 


nice 


study 


service 


come 


sure 


become 


unless 


ever 


anything 


December 


aunt 



172 



GLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 



ball 


table 


various 


plant 


character 


true 


anyway 


popular 


full 


already 


band 


post 


further 


appreciate 


boat 


pretty 


learn 


body 


dark 


kind 


often 


clear 


difference 


oblige 


principle 


cover 


door 


nothing 


ride 


driven 


enter 


off 


second 


fair 


face 


believe 


sister 


getting 


husband 


boy 


size 


got 


importance 


city 


state 


instead 


lead 


found 


thus 


pleasant 


light 


pay 


yes 


price 


offer 


to-morrow 


afraid 


relative 


pleasure 


doctor 


annual 


rule 


prepare 


five 


automobile 


son 


refer 


o'clock 


coming 


song 


represent 


read 


date 


sudden 


rest 


back 


year 


throw 


river 


enough 


law 


war 


scene 


fine 


name 


west 


special 


order 


running 


world 


stand 


bed 


separate 


accept 


stop 


cold 


sold 


alone 


trust 


live 


told 


arrive 


try 


mail 


although 


began 


walk 


few 


among 


carry 


warm 


hear 


association 


distribute 


weather 


child 


close 


earliest 


condition 


mother 


club 


effort 


different 


return 


dollar 


hat 


else 


same 


evidence 


justice 


especially 


almost 


form 


lose 


game 


because 


himself 


lot 


grant 


big 


intend 


material 


indeed 


Monday 


June 


nor 


liberty 


month 


list 


sometimes 


necessary 


start 


public 


struck 


object 


always 


station 


unable 


paid 


both 





SPELLING 




cordially 


party 


feet 


meant 


expect 


word 


itself 


seven 


mean 


madam 


several 


address 


quite 


six 


brought 


charge 


Saturday 


ten 


everything 


family 


again 


why 


run 


finish 


Friday 


perhaps 


took 


hot 


something 


answer 


better 


known 


talk 


half 


lost 


least 


though 


keep 


possible 


plan 


office 


life 


September 


saw 


Tuesday 


ago 


sick 


seen 


best 


business 


visit 


whole 


came 


does 


went 


whose 


says 


each 


act 


action 


car 


eight 


begin 


change 


ground 


knew 


desire 


court 


room 


picture 


eat 


follow 


thought 


show 


guess 


matter 


under 


build 


hard 


cost 


board 


care 


line 


February 


far 


eye 


mind 


lady 


nine 


gentleman 


October 


part 


without 


head 


poor 


reply 


arrest 


left 


remember 


spend 


trip 


whether 


Wednesday 


attend 


cent 


interest 


women 


case 


right 


January 


wonder 


fall 


side 


present 


conference 


however 


Thursday 


teacher 


died 


July 


friend 


tire 


glass 


report 


bad 


upon 


held 


speak 


late 


young 


less 


vote 


money 


done 


understand 


wife 


need 


high 


along 


bring 


still 


sorry 


August 


company 


book 


train 


evening 


cut 


hand 


whom 


father 


member 


mile 


broke 


forenoon 


November 


paper 


during 


large 


open 



173 



174 



CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 



reach 


fell 


hurt 


stood 


regard 


fourth 


led 


suppose 


woman 


grand 


low 


view 


according 


hold 


mention 


white 


prison 


inform 


promise 


able 


road 


lay 


result 


above 


section 


leave 


select 


assure 


subject 


length 


serve 


auto 


success 


loss 


soap 


baby 


supply- 


mine 


suggest 


catch 


system 


ought 


teach 


duty- 


tax 


outside 


terrible 


education 


allow 


pair 


therefore 


extra 


amount 


probably 


uncle 


fail 


appoint 


ready 


absence 


foot 


expense 


real 


article 


forward 


felt 


request 


became 


goes 


fifth 


spring 


behind 


government 


fill 


stay 


brother 


impossible 


front 


stole 


dead 


include 


information 


themselves 


delay 


income 


miss 


third 


drill 


increase 


none 


top 


effect 


inside 


press 


toward 


employ 


investigate 


red 


watch 


entire 


judgment 


salary 


wrote 


entrance 


navy 


secure 


account 


extreme 


omit 


set 


across 


fix 


opinion 


tenth 


around 


forty 


police 


ticket 


card 


general 


position 


usual 


cause 


obj ection 


power 


wait 


death 


perfect 


prefer 


worth 


divide 


period 


proper 


beside 


doubt 


rapid 


push 


bought 


drown 


region 


raise 


built 


easy 


remain 


really 


buy 


escape 


repair 


round 


carried 


free 


sail 


shut 


destroy 


gone 


search 


to-night 


direction 


happen 


short 


total 





SPELLING 


17 


trouble 


wonderful 


circular 


contract 


aboard 


add 


class 


crowd 


air 


affair 


clothing 


dash 


appear 


attempt 


collect 


debate 


beautiful 


black 


colonies 


decision 


burn 


claim 


combination 


degree 


capture 


common 


comfort 


department 


career 


convenient 


complaint 


diamond 


check 


convention 


consideration 


difficulty 


contain 


daughter 


disappoint 


discussion 


deep 


declare 


distinguish 


district 


direct 


estate 


due 


elaborate 


dozen 


event 


feature 


emergency 


east 


factory 


field 


empire 


elect 


favor 


firm 


engine 


election 


God 


human 


enjoy 


engage 


illustrate 


manner 


entertain 


express 


injure 


neighbor 


entitle 


final 


lesson 


progress 


estimate 


finally 


minute 


recent 


experience 


gold 


news 


sea 


fight 


horse 


political 


session 


figure 


motion 


prove 


statement 


file 


north 


rate 


suit 


flight 


occupy 


soft 


theater 


flower 


preliminary 


suffer 


visitor 


foreign 


principal 


surprise 


agreement 


guest 


proceed 


tree 


alike 


history 


provide 


wear 


allege 


important 


refuse 


within 


application 


imprison 


relief , 


yard 


argument 


improvement 


retire 


age 


arrangement 


jail 


shed 


athletic 


beg 


newspaper 


sight 


attention 


chief 


organization 


south 


avenue 


cities 


personal 


spent 


bear 


clerk 


piece 


stopped 


begun 


command 


play 


vacation 


belong 


committee 


primary 


weigh 


camp 


concern 


receipt 


wind 


cast 


consider 


responsible 



176 



CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 



restrain 


born 


land 


publication 


royal 


box 


ledge 


publish 


secretary 


bridge 


local 


purpose 


spell 


celebration 


machine 


race 


stone 


center 


majority 


railroad 


summon 


century 


mayor 


recommend 


testimony 


chain 


measure 


recover 


track 


circumstance 


mountain 


reference 


travel 


citizen 


national 


senate 


victim 


connection 


official 


serious 


accident 


convict 


organize 


ship 


addition 


develop 


page 


steamer 


adopt 


examination 


particular 


support 


army 


famous 


point 


term 


assist 


fortune 


population 


town 


associate 


height 


pound 


treasure 


await 


honor 


practical 


vessel 


beginning 


ice 


president 


volume 


block 


inspect 


print 


wire 


blow 


invitation 


private 


witness 


blue 


judge 


property 


wreck 



The "one hundred demons." — Doctor Jones calls the 
following one hundred words the "One Hundred Spelling 
Demons of the English Language" because he found that 
they were the words oftenest misspelled in' all grades of the 
elementary school. These words should receive especial at- 
tention : 



always 


dear 


many 


two 


among 


doctor 


meant 


too 


any 


every 


making 


trouble 


again 


easy 


minute 


tear 


ache 


early 


much 


tired 


answer 


enough 


none 


though 


business 


friend 


often 


through 


been 


February 


once 


they 


built 


forty 


piece 


to-night 


busy 


grammar 


ready 


truly 


believe 


guess 


raise 


used 







SPELLING 


I 


beginning 


hoarse 


road 


very 


blue 


half 


straight 


which 


break 


having 


sugar 


where 


buy 


hour 


shoes 


women 


can't 


heard 


said 


write 


country 


here 


says 


writing 


could 


hear 


sure 


would 


color 


instead 


since 


Wednesday 


choose 


just 


some 


wear 


coming 


knew 


seems 


whether 


cough 


know 


separate 


whole 


don't 


laid 


their 


won't 


does 


lose 


there 


wrote 


done 


loose 


Tuesday 


week 



177 



The "arch-demons" of this list were found by Doctor 
Jones to be which, misspelled 321 times in the 7,500 themes ; 
their and there, misspelled an aggregate of 612 times for the 
two ; and separate, misspelled 283 times. 



Attempting to learn these:—- While misspelling these. 

spectacle 

dieresis 

dulcimer 

gossamer 

intrigue 

obeisance 

buoyant 

rendezvous 

aggrieve 

superlative 

romantic 

obstinate 

(After Studebaker — Des Moines Annual Report, 1915.) 




An examination of the written work of pupils in grades 
four to eight in the Des Moines schools showed that all but 
one of these one hundred words were used in the written 



178 



CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 



vocabularies of fourth-grade children. Yet seventy-nine per 
cent, of the fourth-grade pupils misspelled more than twenty 
of the words, and forty-one per cent, of all pupils in grades 
four to eight inclusive misspelled twenty or more of the 
one hundred words. Approximately the same record was 
made in eighteen other cities. Surely Assistant Superin- 
tendent Studebaker 1 is right when he concludes, "in the 
light of these facts it certainly is not advisable ... to 
use time in an effort to teach children in the respective 
grades the spelling of such words as the following, selected 
from the spelling book in use :" 



Fourth Grade 


Fifth Grade Sixth Grade 


sighing 


salubrious potential 


cherub 


infectious ptarmigan 


hyena 


concertina scullion 


barbarous 


ludicrous 


i avaricious 


luscious 


spectral 


predecessor 


damask 


plenteous 


» bituminous 


verdure 


intrigue 


apologetic 


cylinder 


calumet 


dissyllable 


Seventh Grade Eighth Grade 


rendezvous 


phthisicky- 


chapeau 




magisterial 


ancestral 


ichthyology 


intercessor 


convalesce 


obeisance 


abstemious 


dulcimei 




demoniacal 


dieresis 




saccharine 



Personal word lists. — -It is not possible, of course, 
under ordinary school conditions to discover the writing 
vocabulary of each child and suit the spelling material to it. 
We shall be on safe ground, however, to omit hundreds, or 



1 See Des Moines, Iowa, Report, 1915, for an excellent study of 
the teaching of spelling. 



SPELLING 179 

>ven thousands, of the most unusual, technical and difficult 
words of the average spelling book. The time thus gained 
should be spent on making sure of the commonest words, 
and especially in making sure of the demon words which are 
most responsible for spelling errors. 

Added to these "minimum lists" should be a "personal 
list" of new words to be learned as the vocabulary grows 
and also a list of words found misspelled in any written 
work, no matter what the subject. Such a method of select- 
ing spelling material would beyond question add much to 
efficiency in spelling, and would save a considerable amount 
of time for other purposes. 

Organization and Presentation — The Teaching 
of Spelling 

In planning the teaching of spelling the principle is to be 
held in mind that spelling is to deal with the words the 
child writes, and not the ones he is able to read, or even able 
to use in oral speech. This would mean that no spelling 
(except in the form of phonograms connected with reading) 
be taught in the first grade, for the simple reason that the 
child has not yet begun £o write. On the same principle, 
spelling will constantly be correlated with written language 
work, and will advance as rapidly as the use of new words 
in written lessons progresses. 

The selection of words to be taught by grades. — It is 
of course impossible to give any standard list of words that 
should be taught in all schools grade by grade. For, as 
implied in the foregoing discussion, the words to be learned 
will be determined by the primers and readers used, the 
nature of the language work, the text-books in other sub- 
jects, and the home, community and play interests of the pu- 
pils. 



180 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

By the end of the fourth grade the spelling of all words 
in the list of one hundred "demons" should have been taught, 
and about seven hundred of the list of the one thousand 
commonest words. In addition, any words used by the child 
in his written work, but not included in these lists, should be 
mastered. By the end of the eighth grade, the entire list of 
the one thousand commonest words should be so firmly fixed 
that none is misspelled, and a corresponding extension made 
in line with the individual writing vocabulary. By the time 
this stage is reached all of the one hundred "demons" 
should also have been so thoroughly vanquished as to give 
no further trouble. 

Jones found that of the 4,532 words which constituted 
the combined vocabulary used in all grades by 1,050 chil- 
dren, the following number of words were used by two per 
cent, of the children in the respective grades : 

Second grade 1,927 

Third grade — new words added to second grade list . . 469 

Fourth grade — new words added to previous lists .... 442 

Fifth grade — new words added to previous lists 432 

Sixth grade — new words added to previous lists 425 

Seventh grade — new words added to previous lists. . . 419 

Eighth grade — new words added to previous lists. . . . 418 

Total 4,532 

Emphasizing the hard words. — Not all words are 
equally hard to spell. Some, once learned, are secure from 
that time on. Others which seem to be learned are soon for- 
gotten and have to be relearned time and again. The only 
way to be sure about the difficulty of a word is to observe 
the trouble it gives the child in learning it. A word that 
looks hard to the teacher may not prove so to the class, while 
certain words that look easy give the class no end of trouble. 

These facts suggest that not all words should be given the 



SPELLING 181 

same amount of study and drill. Not a few teachers require 
all the words of the spelling lesson to be "written ten times," 
or "studied over twenty times" by the pupils. This method 
puts just as much study on easy words as hard words. The 
result is what is called "over-learning' , of the easy words. 

Children must be taught how to study spelling. If they 
are merely told to "take the next twenty words" from the 
spelling book we may be sure they will not finally make good 
spellers. They need to learn how to weigh the difficulty of 
words, to notice the difficult part of hard words, and to drill 
themselves on words known to be hard. 

Personal and class lists of hard words.— Each pupil 
should have a small note-book to be used for spelling only. 
One section of this should be given to the keeping of a list 
of all words misspelled either in the regular spelling lessons 
or in any other written work of the school. The teacher will 
need to keep some oversight of these lists to make sure that 
the missed words are put down, and that they are spelled 
correctly when recorded. These personal lists should form 
the basis of frequent reviews and dictation work. 

The teacher should also keep a class list of misspelled 
words found in the written work of all lessons, and use 
these for occasional lesspns for the entire class. There is 
little danger of putting too much stress on the misspelled 
words. These are the "demons" that need to be overcome. 

One sixth-grade child made the following personal list 
during one school year. 1 Very few of the words were in the 
sixth-grade list of her spelling book, hence the only way to 
learn them was by outside attention and drill : 



tiger 


Latin 


thickness 


trolley 


vegetables 


accident 


heavier 


permission 


giant 


cakes 


Florida 


spaces 


basin 


general 


gravel 


college 



1 Page 27, Des Moines Report, 1915. 



182 



CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 



receive 


harp 


layers 


mineral 


possible 


situated 


manual 


tobacco 


nickel 


visions 


memorizing 


exports 


pistol 


fiercely 


poetry 


leather 


medicine 


enemies 


memory 


always 


dragged 


spoil 


quotation 


products 


amuse 


hundred 


correcting 


copper 


dwellers 


district 


supplying 


concerned 


rope 


loaned 


series 


sympathy 


imagined 


value 


paragraph 


agent 


fancied 


insane 


vivid 


walnut 


forge 


Wales 


recognize 


insurance 


pincers 


Christians 


selection 


tallest 


elder 


sixteen 


chapter 


sailors 


struggle 


bade 


bridge 


block 


Greek 


England 


capital 


language 


prevent 


artist 


comparisons 


supplement 


kingdom 


relief 


tread 


sponge 


realm 


tightly 


example 


scissors 


executed 


period 


jewels 





How fast to teach the spelling of new words.— In gen- 
eral there is nothing gained by teaching the spelling of new 
words without also teaching their meaning and use. If a 
word when learned goes at once into use,, it not only extends 
the vocabulary by so much, but its frequent use will also 
tend to fix the correct spelling. 

Most teachers probably teach new words too rapidly. 
From two or three to five or six a day will keep up with the 
needs of any grade, and will by the end of the eighth grade 
give the child some six thousand words in his spelling vo- 
cabulary. If but a few new words are presented in each 
lesson time is then left for drill and review on words pre- 
viously learned, and for teaching the use of the words in 
sentences. 

How to teach the spelling of new words There is no 

one "method" that should be used to the exclusion of all 



SPELLING 183 

others in teaching spelling. Many devices must be invented 
by the teacher to secure drill and review zvith interest. Prin- 
cipal H. C. Pearson, of the Horace Mann School, suggests 
the following as one good method: 1 

"1. Write one of the words on the blackboard and teach 
it in accordance with the following plan. Then write the 
next word, teaching it in the same, and so on with the rest 
of the words : 

"(a) While writing the word, pronounce it distinctly. 

"(b) Develop the meaning orally by using the word in a 
sentence and by defining it. 

"(c) Divide word into syllables. Call on pupils to spell 
orally by syllables. Have the word spelled in concert, and 
individually by poor spellers. 

"(d) Have pupils indicate the parts of the word that 
present difficulties, or whether the word contains parts they 
already know. Teacher should also call attention to pecu- 
liarities, such as silent letters, ei and ie combinations, etc. 

"(e) Have pupils write the word once, twice or three 
times, pronouncing it softly or spelling silently as they write 
it. It would be well to have given a new sentence using the 
word before they do this. This is to emphasize strongly the 
meaning of the word again just before the child writes it. 

"(f) Allow the class a moment in which to look at the 
word again and then have them close eyes and try to visual- 
ize it, or use any other device of a similar nature. 

"2. After the various words of the day's lesson have been 
studied in this way, allow a few minutes for studying the 
whole lesson, suggesting that each pupil emphasize the words 
he thinks he doesn't know. This time should be limited so 
that each pupil will attend vigorously and attentively. 

"(a) Next have the whole column reviewed orally. This 
may be done either by the class as a whole or by individual 
pupils, or both. If the former, have children first spell each 
word from the board and then, turning from the board, spell 
it again silently. Then let them verify results by consulting 
the board. If the latter, have pupils work on the words that 
are most difficult for them." 



Quoted, page 28, Des Moines Report, 191$. 



184 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Oral and written spelling.- — While spelling ability is 
finally needed only in written form it may well be that the 
oral method has certain valuable uses. Particularly as the 
child is beginning to learn the spelling of words the oral drill 
should be employed, carrying this oral ability over as rapidly 
as possible to writing. Oral practise may also be used at any 
other stage to secure additional drill, lend variety, or furnish 
a device for competitive tests, etc. The main dependence, 
however, must be placed in written spelling. For, while 
it is probable that a given number of words can be learned 
faster by the oral than by the written method, they will not 
be remembered so well, nor used with as much accuracy 
when spontaneously employed in writing. 

Column and context spelling. — -It has been urged that 
spelling shall be taught chiefly in connection with the use of 
words in context. This does not mean, however, that col- 
umns of words should never be assembled and drilled upon. 
They should be. But column spelling should not become the 
rule. For it is one thing to be able to spell a word in a col- 
umn drill, and quite another thing to be able to spell it when 
writing, with the attention centered on the thought rather 
than on spelling. It is to be remembered in conducting spell- 
ing by dictated sentences that the words employed for spell- 
ing may be used almost as formally as if in columns. It is 
evident that no small part of the practise should be in con- 
nection with the pupil's own composition. The rule here is 
to bring the spelling practise as nearly as possible to the 
normal conditions under which spelling ability is required. 

Drill on difficult elements. — If a large number of mis- 
spellings of the same word are collected it will be seen that 
a very large proportion of the errors center about some one 
difficult letter or syllable. Once discovered, this is the part 
of the word that should receive the drill. In drilling on the 



SPELLING 185 

word it is well to have it written on the board with the hard 
part in colored crayon, or underlined to attract the attention. 

Spelling rules. — A great diversity of practise exists 
concerning the teaching of spelling rules. Some spelling 
books omit all rules, while others give as many as eighteen. 
Cook and O'Shea made a somewhat careful study of the ef- 
fect of learning spelling rules on college freshmen and high- 
school students. 1 They conclude that, with this grade of 
students, rules have little or no relation to spelling ability. 
Much less effect would they have on children in the grades, 
who have less power to apply the rule. In the training of 
good spellers, the chief dependence must be placed on mak- 
ing spelling automatic by well-directed practise. 

Mastering the lesson. — There are four factors which 
combine to make the complete spelling lesson: 2 (1) Super- 
vised study, in which the teacher goes over the words with 
the class, analyzes their difficulties, has the words visualized, 
spelled orally and in writing, and perhaps used in sentences. 
(2) Independent study, in which the children drill them- 
selves on the words, visualizing them, repeating the letters, 
and writing the words. (3) Testing results, not only of the 
present day's study, but of review words. (4) Correction 
of errors, or making a personal list of incorrect words and 
drilling upon the correct forms. Only when these four 
processes are properly combined is spelling well taught. 

General spelling contests. — The oral spelling contest 
between schools has for generations been looked upon with 
favor, not only as a competitive diversion, but as a means of 
making good spellers. As a diversion it is a success; as a 
means of teaching spelling it is a failure. First of all the 
spelling contest appeals only to naturally good spellers. The 



1 The Child and His Spelling, page 10. 

2 Adapted from Nettie Sawyer Funk, Automatic Speller, p. viiL 



186 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

poor speller knows he has no chance in the contest, hence 
he does not greatly exert himself and expects low rank. The 
one who needs the study and drill does not get it. 

Further, the words usually studied and drilled upon for 
the spelling contest are not selected with reference to their 
practical use in the child's vocabulary. Far from it; they 
are more usually selected as a sporting proposition from un- 
usually difficult and rare words that will test merely the 
verbal memory. For example, it has been found that the 
words which, there and their are the words oftenest mis- 
spelled of any in the language by the pupils of the first eight 
grades. But who ever heard of using these words in a spell- 
ing contest ! 

The competitive motive is a good incentive in the learning 
of spelling, but it can be used to better advantage than in the 
usual oral contest. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. How, on the whole, are your children as spellers? Have you 
some who spell well in class but miss many words in writing? Have 
you those who miss the same words over time after time? If you 
meet with these difficulties, would it be better to devote your atten- 
tion to their cure rather than to teaching lists of new words? 

2. Do you find many words in your speller lists which are not in 
the child's writing vocabulary? If so, would it be better to omit 
some of these and make sure of the common words? 

3. Try your school, grade by grade with the lists of words on 
page 168. Remember that to average with good schools, they should 
be able to spell seven out of the ten correctly. Test them also with 
the "one hundred demons" and the one thousand commonest words. 

4. How do you teach new words to children in the earlier grades ? 
Compare with the directions given on page 183 and see whether you 
can improve your method. 

5. What is your method of curing the repeated misspelling of the 
same words in manuscripts? Do you make the child correct the 
misspelling, or do you merely check it and trust the child to look the 



SPELLING 187 

word up? Do you have the children keep lists of their misspelled 
words and drill on them? Do you keep a list from the manuscripts 
you read ? Do you make all lessons spelling lessons ? 

REFERENCES 

Cook and O'Shea, The Child and His Spelling. Bobbs-Merrill 
Co., Indianapolis. 

Buckingham, Spelling Ability. Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
versity, New York. 

Ayres, The One Thousand Commonest Words. Russell Sage 
Foundation, New York. 

Ayres, Spelling Vocabularies of Personal and Business Letters. 
Russell Sage Foundation, New York. 

Jones, Concrete Examination of the Material of English Spelling. 
University of South Dakota, Vermilion, S. D. 

Suzzallo, The Teaching of Spelling. Teachers College, Columbia 
University, New York. 

Des Moines Annual Report, 1915. School Board, Des Moines, 
Iowa. 



CHAPTER XII 



LANGUAGE 



THE most commonly applied test of one's education and 
intelligence is his command of his mother tongue. Let 
his speech be uncouth or ineffective and no amount of learn- 
ing will enable him to convey an impression of culture. On 
the other hand, well-chosen, effective speech is everywhere 
a personal asset no matter what the occupation or status in 
life. 

Aims Sought Through Language Training 

Two great aims express the results we should seek in lan- 
guage teaching : 

1. Ease, fluency, enjoyment and accuracy in the use of 
oral speech. 

2. Ease, effectiveness, enjoyment and accuracy in the use 
of zvritten speech. 

To the attainment of these ends, certa'm,knowledge, atti- 
tudes and skills are required. 

Knowledge required. — The child's earlier beginnings 
in language are all made (1) through the impulse leading 
to speech and (2) through the impulse leading to imitation. 
It is natural and necessary for the child to develop speech. 
It is just as natural and necessary that he shall begin by 
copying whatever speech he hears, whether it be English or 
Choctaw, whether it be the correct diction of the classical 
scholar or the slang of the gutter-snipe. Imitation remains 
throughout life an important factor in developing good 
speech, yet certain knowledge becomes necessary as a guide. 

188 



LANGUAGE 189 

The child should be trained in such knowledge as will 
lead to the following results : 

1. Broadening and enriching the vocabulary. 

2. Ability to recognize correct and incorrect forms of 
speech. 

3. Familiarity with the standards of good articulation 
and enunciation. 

4. An understanding of the common faults of expression 
and how they are to be remedied. 

5. Knowledge of how to organize thought for effective 
speaking or writing. 

6. Knowledge of how to assemble material in written 
paragraphs. 

7. Knowledge of the use of capital letters and punctua- 
tion marks. 

8. Knowledge of correct grammatical usages. 

9. Knowledge of the forms of business and social cor- 
respondence. 

Attitudes to be developed. — Much of the slovenly, care- 
less speech constantly to be heard among our people is to be 
accounted for by lack of interest in good speech. Most per- 
sons know how to speak and write much better than they do 
these things. It is largely a question of standards, a matter 
of desiring to command beautiful and effective speech. 

Training in language should then first of all lead children 
to desire to become good speakers and writers of their 
thoughts. This does not mean that they must become orators 
and authors, but that they shall have pride in good expres- 
sion, though it may relate to the humblest affairs. They 
must come to have a satisfaction in good articulation and 
enunciation, and to feel humiliation over lack of ability in 
these things. Their standards must be so developed that 
they will not permit themselves unskilful utterance, incor- 
rect pronunciations or errors in grammar. Further, good 



190 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

standards must come to be desired from within, and not 
seem to be imposed from without. 

The course in language training should lead children to en- 
joy written expression, instead of finding it a task and a bug- 
bear as so many do. If the outcome of language training is 
a distaste for all written work, if it makes the pupil dread 
the writing of a story, a paper or a letter, then the work has 
in large degree been a failure, no matter what the technical 
knowledge acquired. It is a sorry end to one's training 
which gives him the mechanics of composition, and leaves 
him without inspiration or impulse to express himself in 
writing. 

Skills sought. — As already implied the success of lan- 
guage teaching can only be measured by the extent to which 
it affects the skill displayed by the children in their daily oral 
and written speech. The language teacher should therefore 
every now and then ask himself how far his instruction is 
actually transforming the speech of his pupils. 

The teacher of language should aim at such skills as the 
following : 

Oral skills. 1. Facility, readiness, fluency. All stumbling 
speech, poor articulation, or other handicaps of expression 
should be given definite treatment — individual treatment if 
necessary. 

2. A pleasing voice and clear enunciation. Shrill raucous 
tones, throaty utterance, or other such mannerisms should 
be removed. Many persons also have an unpleasant laugh 
or facial habit which, with a little attention, could be cor- 
rected. 

3. Clear concise expression in simple language. Every 
one has noticed the difference in clearness of meaning shown 
by different speakers, teachers or conversationalists. Such 
differences arise in part from differences in clearness of 



LANGUAGE 191 

thinking, and in part from differences in ability in expres- 
sion. Early training has much to do with this skill. 

4. Ability to think while speaking. There are plenty of 
people who can speak if they are not required to think at 
the same time, or who can think if they are not required to 
speak while thinking. But one needs to be able to unfold 
an idea while expressing it. It is this power that makes the 
good conversationalist, the strong public speaker, the skilful 
lawyer or debater. The language training of children should 
have this aim clearly in mind, and give much practise to in- 
sure its attainment. 

Skill in writing. 1. Ease, readiness, effectiveness. There 
are many who possess fluency in oral speech, but whose ex- 
pression becomes labored and stiff when they attempt to 
write. Their brain pathways seem to be sufficiently open 
between their thought centers and speaking centers, but 
not between their thought centers and writing centers. The 
only way to get brain pathways open is by using them. 

2. Orderly arrangement of material. Skill should develop 
from month to month in organizing the points under a single 
topic and arranging them in connected order to form a 
paragraph. As age and development increase the power 
should grow to use a series of paragraphs to form a longer 
discussion. 

3. Use of correct language forms. Skill in writing should 
so develop that the child naturally and habitually uses as 
good grammar as he knows. This is to say that carelessness 
and incorrect forms coming from bad speech habits should 
gradually be weeded out, so that the written speech may rise 
to the level of the child's knowledge mastery of his mother 
tongue. This will mean to eliminate the "I didn't think" 
errors. 

4. Automatic and habitually correct use o£ capital^ punc- 



192 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

tuation marks and spelling. One boy, when chided by his 
teacher for being late with his composition, responded with 
the hopeful information that he had it all written and only 
needed time to go through and punctuate it! It is to be 
feared that all too many pupils learn and handle the mechan- 
ics of composition in the same way. The aim here must be 
to make the use of capitals, periods, commas, etc., so familiar 
that they drop into place almost without thought or attention. 
This, it is needless to say, will require much drill and prac- 
tise. 

Skill in interpretation. Imagination, like memory or ob- 
servation, responds readily to stimulus and training. Lan- 
guage instruction, equally with reading, should strengthen 
this picturing, vivifying power of the mind. To recreate the 
characters and action of the story, to become the person- 
age represented in dramatizing, to make real in one's own 
mind the situations and persons of the original story written 
or told — these are all training for the imagination. 

Material for Language Instruction 

We shall find help in selecting language material by re- 
membering that speech naturally arises out of the desire to 
express some interest, need or problem immediately con- 
nected with our experience. Language normally is never for 
a moment separate from the things we think, the things we 
plan, or the things we do. The material for the child's in- 
struction in language should in similar fashion originate in 
precisely the same way — it should grow out of his immediate 
interests and activities. The great problem is to make the 
language instruction take hold of the real, every-day speech 
of the child and thus grow into habit. All too much of the 
teaching of the best of us fails to carry across to the point 
where it produces actual results in applied skill. 



LANGUAGE 193 

More specifically, the following are some of the more im- 
portant sources from which language material may be 
drawn: 

1. Activities in which the child is engaged. — The cen- 
ter of interest and the most powerful motive to expression 
with children are found in their immediate activities. Their 
plays and games, their little tasks and duties at home, the 
picnic or excursion, the raising of their prize poultry, the 
producing of their club acre of corn, their canning club work 
—all these they like to talk about and write about. In them 
one of the strongest language motives is found. And unless 
language springs from some inner motive that prompts ex- 
pression, the speech will be artificial and formal, and little 
good come from the training.^ 

The same principle holds with reference to the activities 
connected with the child's other studies. They are all fruit- 
ful in language material. The lesson in geography or his- 
tory, the field excursion in nature study, the experiment in 
physiology, a community enterprise in civics — these are the 
very heart of the language material. They supply thoughts 
calling for expression and make the expression worth while 
because it attaches to genuine material instead of to formal 
"exercises." 

2. Interest in persons and objects. — Intimately con- 
nected with the child's activities are the persons and objects 
of his immediate environment. Indeed, most of his activ- 
ities grow out of these relations. The child's home and fam- 
ily; his playmates; days and seasons; birds and bees and 
animal playmates, trees and flowers and growing crops, all 
are sources of the richest language material. 

3. Stories. — The immediate activities and environment 
of the child do not, however, supply a broad enough basis 
for language work. Experience needs to be broadened, ideas 
enriched and imagination trained to work with material out- 



194 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

side the range of direct contacts and associations. Stories 
quicken the sympathies, cultivate a knowledge of desirable 
and undesirable personal qualities, develop the sense of 
humor, store the memory with interesting material, and sup- 
ply good models of speech for imitation. The stories told 
the children are more real than those read, at least in all 
the earlier grades, and will be more productive of spontane- 
ous expression. 

The story will serve as the natural and effective basis of 
correlation between language and reading. These two as- 
pects of the study of the mother tongue should go hand in 
hand, each supplementing and reenf orcing the other. Stories 
told as the basis for the reading lesson may well be used for 
language work, or vice versa. So closely are these two lines 
correlated in the lower grades of some of our best schools 
that they are hardly separable. On the whole, however, the 
course in language will need to add a considerable number of 
stories to those already listed for the reading work. Yet 
care must be taken not to give the child more stories than he 
can assimilate. Children enjoy having favorite stories re- 
peated, and it is far better to repeat good stories until they 
are well mastered than to tell so many that the child but 
partially grasps them. 

4. Pictures. — Children like to study pictures. Pictures 
speak a language that all can understand. They are worth 
while in themselves as educational material, and they afford 
an inexhaustible source of stimuli for expression, both oral 
and written. A part of the equipment of every school should 
be a supply of pictures representing masterpieces adapted to 
the respective grades. These can be obtained for a few cents 
each in excellent copies. 

5. Letter-writing. — This is one of the most fruitful 
sources of language material. Furthermore, it is one of the 
most fruitful lines of language training. A very small pro- 



LANGUAGE 195 

portion of our pupils will become authors, journalists, etc. ; 
but all of them should become writers of interesting and 
attractive social letters to friends and family, and of clear 
and concise business letters to those with whom they have 
dealings. 

The great thing in the use of this material is to make the 
situations real. For only this will call forth spontaneous 
expression. Let actual letters be written to friends, rel- 
atives, or business houses, and let them be sent. Only in 
this way will the real language power of the child develop 
through letter-writing. It is well also to bring samples of 
good letters, or printed collections of letters, before the class 
for study. 

6. Future plans and interests. — While children live 
very largely in an actual present, they also build for them- 
selves ideal presents and imaginary futures. Many of these 
dreams are too personal and intimate for the child to be will- 
ing to express them to a world of whose sympathy and un- 
derstanding he is not sure. On the other hand, certain of 
these mental creations he is eager to express. The trips he 
would like to take, the places he would like to visit, the voca- 
tions he would like to pursue, the adventures he would like 
to have, are all very real to his imagination and come ready 
to his tongue or pen. 

7. Errors common to every-day speech. — While lan- 
guage teaching must in the main be constructive and pre- 
sent a positive plan of action, it must, nevertheless, not fail 
to deal with errors as they arise. Teachers should be alert 
for speech errors, and keep a note-book record of them for 
constant reference. Children should occasionally be asked 
to tell or write for the teacher, errors which they have 
caught themselves making. Drill should at once follow to 
eliminate such errors. Eternal vigilance on the part of all 
concerned is the price that must be paid for good speech. 



196 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Especially should care be used to eliminate the grosser 
forms of slang which constitute so large an element in the 
speech of many persons. Undoubtedly there are slang words 
or phrases so expressive and so unoff ensive that they deserve 
a permanent place in our speech. But no small part of the 
slang used has its rise in mental laziness or sheer poverty of 
vocabulary. It is easier to say that a certain thing is "swell," 
or "great," or "fierce" than to find suitable words in which 
to express the shade of meaning intended. In fact such 
speech saves intending any definite meaning whatever, and 
so leads to loose and inaccurate thought. 

No doubt another motive back of the use of slang is the 
fact that in certain social classes it is "quite the thing" to 
use the jargon of the group. While language training should 
not expect nor attempt to make verbal purists of our chil- 
dren it should save them from the evil effects of the cruder 
forms of the slang of the day. 

Grammar. — There can be no doubt that in the past 
our children have been taught too much technical grammar 
and too little of the expression side of speech. A decided 
change in emphasis has taken place in recent years, but even 
yet many schools introduce difficult grammar material far 
too early. Grammar deals with the formal, the logic, side of 
language. It supplies the rigid rules by which to test the 
linguistic correctness of one's speech. It gives a knowl- 
edge of the structure of the language and makes one more 
fully understand his mother tongue. 

Grammar is a necessary part of the study of language, but 
as a formal separate branch it should not come earlier than 
the eighth grade. Even then grammar should consist only 
of the practically essential phases of the subject, leaving the 
more technical aspects for the high school. 

First-grade language material. — The language work of 
the first grade will be almost if not quite all oral. The most 



LANGUAGE 197 

natural beginning is with the play and home interests. For 
example, the teacher asks such questions as the following: 
How many of the class played on Saturday ? What did you 
play, John? Who was captain? What did you do? The 
child's oral responses, put together, make a story as follows : x 

Saturday I played soldier with my brothers. 
My big brother was captain. 
The baby carried the flag. 
I beat the drum. 

Questions on another interest may yield the f olldwing : 

I have a large doll. 

Her name is Arabella. 

She has light hair. 

She has a little bed. 

She has eyes that go to sleep. 

Stories and poems. The stories listed for the various 
grades in the chapter on Reading will furnish an excellent 
basis for language work also, and should be used for this 
purpose. After the story has been told the children, the 
teacher should ask questions about the characters, or the 
incidents, etc. The children are required to answer in full 
sentences. The simpler stories may be dramatized. As the 
child gains in language ability, he is asked to tell the stories 
after hearing them. A few stories adapted to first-grade 
language work follow: 

The Little Gray Pony, Lindsay 
The Dog and His Shadow, ^Esop 
Wynken, Blynken and Nod, Field 
The Shet-up Pony, Story-tell-Lib 
Finding the Baby Moses, the Bible 
London Bridge, Mother Goose 
The Tree, Bjornson 
Hickory, Dickory, Dock, Mother Goose 



See Massachusetts Bulletin 67, Board of Education. 



198 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Pictures. Such pictures as those of the following list are 
adapted to first-grade children. In studying pictures the 
teacher should aid the children in understanding them, but 
be careful not to make the work critical or technical in any 
degree. Let the children just enjoy the pictures and come 
to love them. They will be ready to tell the "story" told in 
the picture, giving names to the children or animal pets, etc., 
shown in it. The pupils may also be asked to suggest a name 
for the picture. This will help to bring out the thought it 
contains, and will give material for language instruction: 

The Brothers, Vogel 
Squirrels, Landseer 
Feeding the Birds, Millet 
Madonna of the Chair, Raphael 
Interior of the Cottage, Israels 
The Knitting Lesson, Millet 
Girl with a Cat, Holker 
Feeding the Sheep, Jacque 
First Steps, Millet 
Bamhina, Robbia 

Errors to be corrected. This list must, of course, grow out 
of the children's speech as heard by the teacher. The best 
time to correct an error is at the time it is made. If the child 
is in the midst of a story, however, he should not be inter- 
rupted. Fluency and spontaneity are worth more than cor- 
rectness at this stage. The error can be corrected when the 
story is finished. Some of the errors to be expected are : 

I seen him when he done it. 
I run all the way to school. 
Him and me. 
Gimme that there book. 
John he said it was me. 
'Tain't so, I hain't got it. 
Once they was . 



LANGUAGE 199 

Second-grade language material. — Conversation based 
on topics of interest in the home or at school should be an 
important part of the second-grade work. The aim at this 
point is to encourage ready expression of familiar thought 
and feeling. The child has now gained more independence, 
and should be able to give connected series of sentences, or 
tell a "story" of which the following is a fair sample : 

I have a little black dog. 

His name is Bobs. 

Bobs likes to play tricks. 

He runs off with my shoes. 

He came into the house with dirty feet. 

My mother drove him out. 

Care should be emphasized at this stage to secure com- 
plete sentence expression. For variety, but without giving 
the names, the exclamation and question type of sentence 
should be encouraged. 

Stories and poems. The child should during this year be 
gaining in power to notice the sequence of events in a story 
and reproduce the order and more important details in his 
reproduction of it. The teacher may if necessary offer such 
suggestions as, "What came first?" — "And then?"— "And 
next?" 

The following stories may be used to supplement those 
given in the reading list : 

Wee Willie Winkie, Kipling 
Why the Sea is Salt, Bryant 
One, Two, Three, Bunner 
Seven Times One, Ingelow 
The New Year's Greeting, Lowell 
The Dog and His Image, ^Esop 
The Boy and the Wolf, iEsop 
The Wonderful World, Rands 
Lady Moon, Houghton 
The Boy and the Frogs, i£sop 



200 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

The following stories or others of the same grade should 
be dramatized: 

The Elves and the Shoe- A Tardy Thanksgiving 

maker The Valiant Mr. Blackbird 

David and Jonathan The Ugly Duckling 

One Eye, Two Eyes, Three Parts of Hiawatha 
Eyes 

Pictures. Continue the study of pictures such as the 
following : 

Brittany Sheep, Bonheur 

Pilgrims Going to Church, Bought on 

The Arrival of the Shepherds, LeRolle 

The Gleaners, Millet 

St. John and the Lamb, Murillo 

The Little Scholar, Bouguereau 

A Helping Hand, Renouf 

i" Hear a Voice, Earl 

Wake Up, Barber 

Children of the Shell, Murillo 

Errors to be corrected. The time has not yet arrived for 
giving the grammatical reasons for corrections. Stress the 
correct forms and try to awaken a pride in their use. Watch 
for such errors as the following : 

We et it up. 

I ain't got no pencil ner nothing. 

Ain't they any school to-day ? 

I knowed it was broke. 

They was five of us. 

He would of tore it. 

I'm thinkin' you was afraid. 

Written expression. Written language should begin with 
the simple sentences which have been used in oral expression. 
From the first the child should learn to begin a statement 
with a capital and end it with a period. He should also 



LANGUAGE 201 

learn to capitalize / and and the names of persons and 
places, the days of the week and the months, and put a ques- 
tion mark after a question. He should be taught to write 
complete sentences. 

Such abbreviations as are frequently used in written 
work should be taught, as Mr., Mrs., St., Ave., and the 
names of the months. It is now time also to teach several 
of the commoner contractions, as I'll, I'm, don't, isn't, aren't, 
haven't, hasn't. The child should know his own address, and 
be able to write it correctly. 

Third- and fourth-grade language material.— The gen- 
eral plan of determining the material for the first two grades 
is to be continued. Interesting, wide-awake thought must be 
compelled as the basis for every lesson. Sharp attention 
must be secured for abundant drills and reviews on all 
formal or mechanical phases of the work. It is wholly use- 
less to try to proceed without ideas in the child's mind press- 
ing for expression; it is equally useless to try to proceed 
without giving opportunity for much spontaneous expres- 
sion, both oral and written. 

As the child's home, school, community and occupational 
interests broaden, the situations suitable for language in- 
struction to be found in them become endless. The study 
of local geography, neighborhood civics, hygiene, biography 
and history, furnishes rich opportunities for correlating 
language work with the other school subjects. The great 
problem now is to make every lesson in some degree a 
language lesson, so that the pupil will realize that language 
standards and facts are not just for the language class, but 
for constant use. 

Stories and poems. Stories and poems should now be 
moving forward to a central place as the basis of material. 
The same stories may in large measure serve both for read- 



202 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

ing and for language material. Suppose, for example, that 
the study for to-day is based on Who Stole the Bird's Nest? 

"To- whit! To-whit! To-whee! 
Will you listen to me? 
Who stole four eggs I laid, 
And the nice nest I made ?" 

"Not I," said the cow, "Moo-oo ! 
Such a thing I'd never do. 
I gave you a wisp of hay, 
But didn't take your nest away. 
Not I," said the cow, "Moo-oo ! 
Such a thing I'd never do." 

The poem may be made the liveliest kind of a reading 
lesson. After being read it may be reproduced orally as a 
language lesson. It has a variety of punctuation marks and 
may be used for instruction and drill upon these. It illus- 
trates a number of uses of capitals, which may be taught. It 
has contractions and quotations to be studied. It has the 
movement, sparkle and interest to make it a good memoriz- 
ing selection. Thus we find in one short production material 
for both the idea side and the more formal drill aspect of 
language study. 

Additional stories and poems, suitable for third- and 
fourth-grade language work : 

Sweet and Low, Tennyson 

The Village Blacksmith, Longfellow 

Jack Frost, Gould 

The Wind and the Moon, Macdonald 

The Barefoot Boy, Whittier 

The Corn Song, Whittier 

Planting the Apple Tree, Bryant 

The Night Wind, Field 

The Children's Hour, Longfellow 

September, Jackson 

Jim Crow, Scollard 



LANGUAGE 203 

Lucy Gray, Wordsworth 
Down to Sleep, Jackson 
A Boy's Song, Hogg 

Dramatizing should continue, with constant effort made 
to have the children enter as fully as possible into the char- 
acters they represent. The emotional element should not 
be forced at this stage. 

A study of the biographies of our national heroes, writers, 
inventors, etc., should form part of the language work for 
these grades. Washington, Patrick Henry, Lincoln, Grant, 
Longfellow, Whittier, Edison, are names that suggest much 
fruitful material. Care must be taken that the emphasis is 
not placed on matters beyond the grasp of the child in these 
studies. Let the human side predominate — character, ideals, 
service, general achievement. 

Oral work should in these grades predominate over writ- 
ten work. 

Picture study. There can, of course, be no one list of 
pictures made to include just those that should be given 
the child from grade to grade. The principle which must 
govern is to keep within the range of the child's compre- 
hension and interest. The following have been found suit- 
able for third- or fourth-grade study : 

The Haymakers, Dupre 

Holy Family, Murillo 

Feeding the Hens, Millet 

At the Watering Trough, Bouveret 

Christ in the Temple, Hofmann 

Red Deer, Landseer 

Shoeing the Bay Mare, Landseer 

Sistine Madonna, Raphael 

Return to the Farm, Trayon 

Return of the Mayflower, Boughton 

The Sower, Millet 

Aurora, Reni 



204 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Errors to be corrected. Do not fail to make corrections 
of errors as they appear in the daily speech of pupils. The 
longer an error is continued the harder the habit will be 
to break. Keep watch for such expressions as the follow- 
ing: 

I et my apple, have you et yourn? 

Joe has went to school. 

I feel kind of sick. 

He trew it away and I can't find it nowhere. 

These kind of pen are no good. 

I c'n git it if you lemme alone. 

Whaddaya want it fur? 

John learned me to curve a ball. 

Letter-writing. Letter-writing should be begun in the 
third grade. Only the simplest forms should at first be 
taught. They should be written to friends, relatives or 
playmates, and deal with matters of home and school in- 
terest. 

The following are fair samples (without the full letter 
form) of letters written by fourth-grade pupils of Massa- 
chusetts schools i 1 

Dear Frank: 

John told us this morning that you are in bed with a 
heavy cold. I am very sorry. I hope the doctor is not mak- 
ing you take medicine. I hate to take medicine. We began 
a new story in class yesterday. The name is "The Blue 
Bird." Perhaps your mother will get it and read it to you. 
I know you will like it. Your friend, 

Tom. 
Dear Uncle : 

You are so far away I am afraid you did not hear the 
good news. Both Mary and I are to be promoted to Grade 
V. Isn't that fine ? Father and mother are as happy as we. 

Your loving nephew, 



1 Bulletin 67, Board of Education, page 31. 



LANGUAGE 205 

Capitals and punctuation. The principal uses of capitals 
should be known by the end of the fourth year, and such 
skill developed in their more common uses that mistakes 
are rare. The abbreviations commonly met in reading and 
those used in writing should be well taught and their punc- 
tuation assured. The contractions used in every-day speech 
and writing should be mastered, and their formation under- 
stood. By the end of the fourth grade the following uses 
of punctuation marks should have been taught : 

Period following statement or command. 
Period after abbreviations. 
Interrogation point after questions. 
Exclamation point after exclamations. 
Apostrophe in contractions. 

Comma in a series of words where connective is omitted. 
Comma separating name of person addressed from rest of 
sentence. 

Apostrophe in possessive singular. 
Hyphen in broken word at end of line. 

Fifth- and sixth-grade language material. — The point 
of view will not change greatly in these grades from that 
of the third and fourth grades. We should still keep close 
to the great central interests of the pupils. We should also 
seek to broaden and enrich those interests by the study of 
literature, history, current events, industries, etc. What- 
ever grips the higher enthusiasms and serves to set free the 
impulse to expression is good language material. Oral ex- 
pression should still exceed written. 

Such topics as those below are suitable for oral or writ- 
ten work for fourth and fifth grades. The children should 
be taught to organize their thoughts for expression. They 
should be taught to stand erect when they speak; to speak 
distinctly; to talk to the point; to use correct English and 
make their story interesting. 



206 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

How we played school on Saturday. 

The fun we had on Thanksgiving. 

The first snowfall of the season. 

An automobile trip to the city. 

How I selected my seed corn. 

How I canned tomatoes for the fair. 

The story of Bruce and the Spider. 

Why I had to stay after school. 

Why we should have clean-up work in our town. 

An accident I saw. 

What I would do if I were teacher. 

The story I like best. 

The following are oral compositions from fifth- and sixth- 
grade pupils respectively : 

My Guinea Hens 

We have two guinea hens. Their names are Jack and 
Jill. Jack has a white breast and the rest of him is black 
and white. Jill has white wings, and her body is gray and 
white. These guinea llens , combs are different from hens' 
combs. They are very hard, and hurt your hand to touch 
them. Jill is very nervous, but Jack is very brave. If he 
sees his sister in trouble he will run to help her. We keep 
these guinea hens because if any one should come to steal 
the hens the guinea hens would set up a loud racket. They 
also scare hawks. 

How I Help My Mother 

Every day when I get up in the morning I eat my break- 
fast. I wash the dishes, do the beds and sweep the floor. 
Then I get ready to go to school. In the afternoon I just 
wash the dishes, and my sister sweeps the floor. When I 
come home from school I do all the errands. Later I go out 
to play. When it is five o'clock I go home and stay home. 
At six o'clock we have supper. When we are all over with 
supper I gather the dishes from the table. When I am done 
I start to wash the dishes. When I have finished I say my 
prayers and go to bed. 



LANGUAGE 207 

Stories and poems. Stories and poems should continue 
as the basis of a considerable proportion of the language 
work. The pupils should be taught to express a story sum- 
mary interestingly and clearly in their own words, keeping 
the sequence of incidents and events. The practise of a com- 
plete or literal paraphrase of poems is of doubtful value, 
since this exercise is certain to kill something of the beauty 
of the production. 

Letter-writing. Letter- writing should be extended to in- 
clude business letters. The difference in fulness and style 
of letters of friendship and those of business should be 
made clear. Business letters should include orders for 
goods, applications for a position, answers to advertisements, 
etc. 

Capitals and punctuation. By the end of the sixth grade 
the child should have in his possession a knowledge of all 
the more common uses of capitals and the punctuation 
marks. He should be able to use these marks with reason- 
able certainty and accuracy, as shown by his written exer- 
cises in all school work. He should be able to determine the 
pronunciation of a word from its diacritical marks, and 
should know how to find the word quickly in the dictionary. 

Correction of errors. As long as errors continue in the 
speech of pupils, that long will the teacher need to continue 
correcting them and drilling on the correct forms. Pupils 
should be required to keep a list of their worst errors, and 
be encouraged to drill themselves in correcting them. 

In a special report of the Boise schools, 1 a summary is 
made of the classes of errors in speech made by pupils, as 
heard by their teachers on playground, in class room or else- 
where, covering a period of six years. The errors are 
grouped under the following six heads, with the percentage 

of the total number of errors charged against each group : 

_____ * 

ijune, 1915, 



208 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

1. Verbs: (40.1 per cent.) 

Past and perfect participle confused. 

Misuse of had and got, use of ain't. 

Agreement with subject in number ; e.g., "He don't." 

Sequence of tenses. 

Uses of shall and will. 

Use of "and" with infinitive; e.g., "try and go." 

2. Double negatives : (3.4 per cent.) 

3. Pronunciation: (20.4 per cent.) 

Just, gtt y final g, for, asked, February, height. 

4. Pronouns : (17.2 per cent.) 

Case forms: 

(1) In compound subject. 

(2) Object of preposition or verb. 

(3) After copula. 

(4) In compounds; e.g., "theirselves." 
Pronoun used for adjective ; e.g., "them books." 
In double subjects ; e.g., "John he did the work." 
Indefinite reference. 

5. Adverbs: (5.8 per cent.) 

Use of adjective for adverb. 
This here, that there, etc. 

6. Colloquialisms, provincialisms: (12.9 per cent.) 

"Lots" for many or much ; "mad" for angry ; "learn" 
for teach; "got" with infinitive, as "got to go;" 
"like" as a conjunction, as "He felt like he could do 
it;" introductory "well," "why,"' "now," "so." 

It has also been found by careful observation that the 
elimination of the ten commonest errors would save full 
half the errors made in the speech of pupils. 1 These errors 

are: 

Ain't, hain't. 

Use of saw and seen. 

Plural subject with singular verb. 

Double negative. 

Have got. 



See Iowa Report of Committee on Elimination, 1916, page 79. 



LANGUAGE 209 

Use of come and came. 

Git. 

Them and those. 

Use of teach and learn. 

Use of can and may. 

Grammar. The beginnings of grammar should be made 
in the sixth grade. The first matter taught should be the 
recognition, and then the formulation, of the four classes 
of sentences: declarative, imperative, interrogatory and ex- 
clamatory. The simple sentence should also be taught, with 
the subject and predicate and their word or simple phrase 
modifiers. 

Seventh- and eighth-grade language material. — The 
language material for the seventh and eighth grades should 
be a continuation and expansion of that of earlier grades, 
with the essentials of grammar added. Says Professor C. A. 
McMurry: 

"How to get an introduction to technical grammar with- 
out losing connection with every-day, useful English is a 
serious problem. The difficulty in trying to teach grammar 
in the upper grades is that there is no good halting place. 
Once enmeshed in the technical phases of grammar, teachers 
are impelled to go on and on, till the practical uses of gram- 
mar are swallowed up in the technique of classifications, in- 
flections, and definitions." 1 

The skilful language teacher will not allow grammar thus 
to depart from its practical uses. Oral and written ex- 
pression will remain the groundwork of language study 
even in the later grades, but the grammatical relations nec- 
essary to intelligence in the use of the mother tongue will 
not be neglected. Grammar must not be taught as an end in 
itself, but as a means to better use of speech and ability in 
reading. 



1 In Preface to Language and Grammar, Book Tzvo. 



210 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

The study of grammar should enable the child to under- 
stand the reasons for the corrections that have been made in 
his speech forms in the earlier grades. It should also give 
him, through the study of sentence structure, greater ability 
to interpret thought in his reading of difficult matter. 

Points to stress in grammar. Many of the text-books in 
grammar still in use in the schools contain an excess of over- 
technical material having little or no relation to the child's 
speech or interpretation in reading. It is therefore necessary 
for the teacher to know the points at which children are 
most liable to make errors in their speech, and then teach 
those phases of grammar that apply. The following have 
been found to be "danger points" in grammar which most 
need attention. 1 

1. A knowledge of the sentence, in order that a complete 
sentence may always be recognized for purposes of punctu- 
ation in writing, and also for its relation to clear thinking 
and expression. 

2. The noun; proper, in order to capitalize; possessive 
form ; uses as subject, complement, object. 

3. The personal pronoun; especially objective and certain 
possessive forms ; uses of which, that, what, who and whom. 

4. The adjective; distinction from adverbs; compari- 
son; capitalization of proper adjectives. 

5. The verb; transitive and intransitive ; agreement with 
subject in person and number; plural with compound sub- 
ject; past participle not used for past tense. The verb is 
responsible for a large proportion of the errors of speech, 
and should receive special attention. 

6. The adverb; comparison ; special attention to the "ly" 
forms. 

7. Sentence order, with reference especially to modifiers 
in wrong positions. 



1 Cf. igi6 Iowa Report on Elimination, page 95. 



LANGUAGE 211 

8. Double negatives. 

What to omit. — Based on a study made by Dean W. W. 
Charters of the grammar needs of children, 1 a committee 
of the Iowa State Teachers' Association recommends the 
following omissions from grammar instruction in the 
grades : 2 

The exclamatory sentence; the interjection; the apposi- 
tive ; the nominative of address ; the nominative of exclama- 
tion ; the objective complement ; the adverbial objective ; the 
indefinite pronouns ; the objective used as a substantive ; the 
classification of adverbs; the noun clause; conjunctive ad- 
verbs ; the retained objective ; the modes (except possibly the 
subjunctive of "to be") ; the infinitive ; the objective sub- 
ject ; the participle except the definition and the present and 
past forms ; the nominative absolute ; the gerund nominative 
absolute; sentences for analysis and parsing that involve 
subtle points of grammar; formal parsing; conjugation; 
diagramming; person of nouns. 

Organisation and Presentation 

In the section on selection of material much direct or in- 
direct reference has been made to methods of organization 
and presentation. No extended discussion will be required, 
therefore, at this place. 

Securing expression. — The first requisite in successful 
language teaching is to secure spontaneous expression. The 
older logical method was to teach rules, principles, facts 
(and their exceptions!), trusting that these would in some 
way carry over to the practical use of speech and serve as a 
guide. But the larger part of such material thus taught 



1 University of Missouri Bulletin, Vol. 16, No. 2. 

2 Report on Elimination of Useless and Obsolete Material (1915), 
page 15. 



212 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

never made connection with speaking and writing. It re- 
mained as so much unused verbal lumber in the mind. 

The newer and better psychological method starts with 
expression. It seeks to get the child to speaking and writing 
his thoughts freely and effectively, even if not at first with 
rigid grammatical correctness. It then undertakes to elimi- 
nate errors and cultivate the grammatical sense on this basis 
of actual speech. The spirit of freedom and good fellow- 
ship should therefore prevail in the highest degree during 
the language period. For where constraint and constant 
criticism are, there spontaneity and expression do not flour- 
ish. Nor will the good teacher monopolize the language time 
with his own speaking, no matter how excellent this speaking 
may be. On the whole, the best language teaching is that 
which most stimulates the child's thought and expression 
with a minimum of speech, except in story-telling, on the 
part of the teacher. Stenographic reports have shown that 
the teacher often uses more than three times as many words 
as all the pupils together in a language recitation ! 

Extending the vocabulary. — The child first comes to 
school with a vocabulary seldom reaching much above one 
thousand words. One of the chief functions of language 
teaching is to extend this vocabulary. But a vocabulary 
can not be extended faster than ideas develop; for words 
that do not serve as the vehicle for ideas are useless, and they 
are not used. The vocabulary may also need refining 
through the elimination of coarse or uncouth words and 
phrases. 

The vocabulary can be expanded (1) by noting and mas- 
tering new words from stories, poems, etc. ; (2) by learning 
the new words that appear in other school subjects; (3) by 
observing new words in the speech of others. The great 
thing in this connection is to cultivate in the pupils the spirit 
of curiosity about new words. Stimulate them to look up a 



LANGUAGE 213 

new word as legitimate game (or a dangerous adversary) 
which must be tracked down and captured. The utter indif- 
ference with which many pupils will pass over a word with- 
out knowing its meaning or adding it to their vocabulary 
indicates inefficient teaching at this point. 

The dictionary habit should be cultivated from the fourth 
grade on. But dictionary definitions alone do not suffice. The 
purpose of learning a new word is not simply to know its 
meaning, but to add it to one's own vocabulary. Therefore 
the new w r ord must be pressed into service. It must be set 
at work in oral or written sentences. 

The use of blanks in sentences and stories.— -One great 
difficulty that all language teachers have to fight against is 
the failure of pupils to carry what they learn into actual 
practise. The use of blank spaces in sentences or stories, 
the spaces to be filled by the pupils from a list of words 
supplied, is helpful in this connection. New words, homo- 
nyms and correct language forms may be presented by this 
device. 

Encouraging original expression. — Children need to 
read, hear and memorize as models the beautiful poems and 
interesting stories of which there are so many now available. 
But they also need to be encouraged from the first to try 
their own zvings of expression. The personal story to be 
told or read to the class, the part written for a school paper 
or booklet, or the verses composed to surprise the teacher or 
the mother are all the essence of good language work. Cre- 
ation as well as appropriation is the criterion of effective 
language teaching. The following verses are samples of 
what children can be led to do : 

Spring 

The sun is bright, the sky is blue, 
The robin sings his song to you, 



214 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

The children dance and scamper and sing 
To see that once more it is spring. 

Tis spring! Tis spring! 

The cheery robins sing, 

The flowers awake from their long winter sleep, 

In the brooks in the meadows the little fish leap. 

(Second Grade, New York.) 

Home and Mother 

I want to go home to mother, 
To help spend Christmas day, 
There we will all be together, 
Happy, cheerful and gay. 

(Fourth Grade, Council Bluffs.) 

The socialized recitation. — As suggested earlier in the 
chapter, the pupil must not only have something to say, but 
some one to say it to. The language class should constitute 
a real social group. Each one should contribute his full 
share either as speaker or as listener. This will require that 
those who speak shall have something interesting to say to 
which the others will care to listen. The ingenious teacher 
will find many ways for carrying this pririciple into practise. 
Here are some of the ways that suggest themselves : 

1. The story hour, in which each child tells a story that 
the others do not know. 

2. A "joke hour," in which each contributes the best joke 
he knows. 

3. Current event day allows each child to bring in the 
most interesting event of which he can learn. 

4. Original poems or stories may be presented. 

5. A story may be dramatized. 

6. A school paper may be read. 

7. Reports may be made on an interesting trip taken. 

8. Reports may be made on books or articles read. 



LANGUAGE 215 

The good speech club. — Some of the most successful 
teachers have organized their school or room into a language 
club. All are eligible to membership. Each member of the 
club keeps a list of his own errors and of the errors he hears 
in the speech of other members. These errors are turned 
in once a week to the teacher or a secretary who charges the 
errors against the different members. The lists are used 
as the basis of an occasional language lesson, the emphasis 
being placed on the correct form, and drill given. The game 
is of course to see how few errors can be charged against one 
in the course of a week. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Estimate the proportion of time you give to oral and to writ- 
ten language work in each of the grades. Do you give enough oral 
work? 

2. Try to formulate your greatest difficulties in teaching lan- 
guage. Then review the chapter to see whether you can find sug- 
gestions that apply. Do you find children who are backward in ex- 
pression? If so, do you judge the difficulty is from shyness, lack of 
ideas, speech defects, or some other trouble? 

3. Consider carefully the subjects in each grade with which you 
most closely correlate the language work. Do you think you are 
slighting any good material ? How do you tie the language work to 
genuine interests instead of abstract themes? Do you ever ask a 
child to write on a topic about which he has not enough ideas to 
serve as a basis for ready expression? 

4. To what extent do you make pictures the basis of language 
study? Which do you think the better, pictures such as found in 
the text-book, or masterpieces? Be sure to take into account the 
value coming from the study of the better picture. Try showing the 
children of each grade a considerable number of prints and ask them 
to pick the ones they like best. What conclusions do you draw ? 

5. Do you agree with the recommendations on grammar ? What 
is your plan for keeping a record of the errors in speech commonly 
made by your pupils and how do you work for their correction ? Do 
you secure a reasonable amount of memorizing poems and stories 



216 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

from your pupils? Do you teach them how to memorize, as sug- 
gested in the chapter on Reading? 

REFERENCES 

McMurry, Special Method in Language. Macmillan Co., New 
York. 

Chubb, The Teaching of English. Macmillan Co., New York. 

Cooley, Language Teaching in the Grades. Houghton Mifflin Co., 
New York. 

Kendall and Mirick, How to Teach the Fundamental Subjects. 
Houghton Mifflin Co., New York. 

Trabue, Completion-Test Language Scales. Teachers College, 
Columbia University, New York. 

Charters and Miller, Course of Study in Grammar. University 
of Missouri (Bulletin, Vol. 16, No. 2), Columbia, Mo. 

Boise Public School Report, 1915, Board of Education, Boise, 
Idaho. 

Iowa Report of Committee on Elimination, 1916. Superintendent 
of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa. 

Massachusetts Board of Education, A Course of Study in English 
Expression. Boston, Mass. 



CHAPTER XIII 



ARITHMETIC 



Ik RITHMETIC has for generations been one of the chief 
jLJl standbys of the elementary curriculum. Originally it 
came into use as a practical tool employed in trade during the 
Middle Ages. It was not until some centuries later that it 
was deemed of sufficient importance to claim a place in gen- 
eral education. Once secure in the school, it gradually lost 
its concrete and practical character and became a formal 
subject chiefly prized for its "disciplinary" effects. So easily 
did arithmetic lend itself to the formal aim that probably 
more than half the material found in the older type of texts 
still in use in many schools lacks all direct relation to every- 
day need for computation. A distinct movement is now 
under way to bring the subject-matter of arithmetic more 
directly into touch with practical affairs. 

The Aim of Arithmetic 

Just what is the function of arithmetic in present-day 
education ? First of all we must agree that the aim of arith- 
metic can not be expressed in terms of mental discipline. Its 
main purpose is concrete, direct, practical, applied. It is the 
business of arithmetic to enable one to do the ordinary num- 
bering and computing required in the common economic and 
social relations. Without denying whatever disciplinary or 
cultural value arithmetic may have, we shall nevertheless 
look upon these values as entirely supplementary and in- 
cidental aims and in no sense the controlling factor in either 
material or method. Furthermore, the discipline from arith- 

217 



218 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

metic can be obtained at least as well from useful as from 
useless material. 

The knowledge required. — From this point of view it 
follows that the knowledge required in arithmetic is of the 
sort that fits into the real situations to be met in home, in 
shop, in business or on the farm. Complicated and involved 
processes, not employed in genuine affairs ; tables and meas- 
ures not in common use ; formulas, rules and highly special- 
ized methods foreign to business computation are all outside 
the true purpose of elementary arithmetic and should be ex- 
cluded from it. 

On the other hand the fundamental tables and measures, 
the simplest and shortest methods of business computations 
and the practical application of arithmetic to the concrete 
problems of daily life must be a fundamental part of the 
education of every intelligent person. Not how wide a range 
of "pure" arithmetic one may know, but the thoroughness 
with which he knows or can apply the relatively few funda- 
mentals is the final test. 

The study of arithmetic in the grades should give the child 
the following knowledge : 

1. How to count objects of all kinds. - How to count by 
naming numbers only. How to count by twos, threes, etc. 

2. How to read and write numbers of ten to twelve fig- 
ures. 

3. The tables and processes involved in addition, sub- 
traction, multiplication and division of whole numbers. 

4. Common fractions, and their addition, subtraction, 
multiplication, and division with the use of such denomina- 
tors as are commonly used in business. A similar knowledge 
of decimals involving up to three places. 

5. The common tables and measures employed in the 
ordinary life routine of the average man or woman. These 
are: measures of length, angle, surface, volume and capac- 
ity, quantity, weight, time, money, value. 



ARITHMETIC 219 

6. Our monetary system, denominations, and the various 
bt emess practises involving the use of checks, drafts, notes, 
mortgages, etc. 

7. Percentage, and its simpler applications to practical 
business uses. 

8. Simple mensuration, applied to lines, angles, surfaces, 
volumes. 

Attitudes to be developed. — Teaching arithmetic as a 
practical tool daily to be employed in all sorts of common 
affairs should result in the development of certain attitudes 
toward its study and use : 

1. A tendency not to be satisfied with guessing or ap- 
proximation, but to insist on finding out through the use of 
figures on all essential matters involving numerical values. 

2. Standards of business accuracy that will result in the 
keeping of an accurate account of all personal or household 
receipts and expenditures. This will make possible a proper 
adjustment of expenditure to income, and also a right bal- 
ance among the different objects for which money is spent. 

3. Unwillingness to rely on general estimates or rough 
approximations with reference to projects planned, as im- 
proving a home or a farm, taking a trip, investing in an 
automobile, etc. 

4. Insistence on detailed and accurately kept records of 
profits or losses from the different enterprises of farm, shop 
or business. 

5. The development of such a sense of values and the in- 
evitable logic of figures as will render one proof against the 
get-rich-quick schemes planned by unscrupulous promoters 
to catch those who through ignorance of business believe 
wealth to be attained by some kind of magic. 

6. A sense of pleasure and satisfaction in the use of fig- 
ures and in the certainty which comes from their wise appli- 
cation to one's affairs. 

It is quite as much the purpose of arithmetic to develop 



220 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

these attitudes toward its use as to supply the knowledge of 
its processes. Good teaching will direct the instruction/ to 
this end. 

The training of skills. — The material of arithmetic may 
roughly be divided into two groups : ( 1 ) that in which the 
facts to be mastered require but the simplest forms of as- 
sociation, with a minimum of reasoning; as, for example, 
counting, reading and writing numbers, and the combinations 
in addition, subtraction, multiplication or division of whole 
numbers or fractions. And (2) the logical or thought proc- 
esses by which these fundamental numerical relations are ap- 
plied to the solutions of problems. 

The first of these, the operations involved in counting, 
notation, numeration, and addition, subtraction, multiplica- 
tion and division should as rapidly as possible be made so 
automatic that they require no hesitancy or thought when 
called for. They must be so securely lodged and so certain 
that they claim no attention to themselves, but leave the mind 
free for the logical relations, the true thought elements, in- 
volved in the problem. They must also be so accurate and 
proof against error that mistakes in adding, subtracting, 
multiplying or dividing will not defeat^ all the reasoning 
done on the problem. 

There is no question but that we fail at this point. Our 
system of arithmetic teaching has on the whole not resulted 
in a reasonable accuracy and skill in the use of the funda- 
mentals. Our pupils add, subtract, etc., too slowly and 
make too many mistakes. 

There is no way, of course, of telling just exactly how 
much skill in number and arithmetical reasoning should be 
possessed by pupils of a certain age or grade. We have no 
absolute measures of such things. Yet certain standards of 
skill have been determined by taking the average perform- 
ance of a large number of children in the corresponding 



ARITHMETIC 221 

grades of different schools. If, for example, we know that 
one thousand fifth-grade pupils have been found on the av- 
erage able to add seven sets of columns in eight minutes 
containing certain combinations of figures, we have in this 
fact a fairly accurate standard by which to judge our own 
fifth grade or any individual pupil in it. Such standardized 
tests as these have been carefully devised. The one most 
widely used is called the Courtis test, which is herewith 
given : (By courtesy of the author, S. A. Courtis, Detroit.) 

Addition 

(Time Allowed, Eight Minutes) 

127 996 237 386 686 474 877 537 

375 320 949 463 775 787 845 685 

953 778 486 827 684 591 981 452 

333 886 987 240 260 106 693 904 

325 913 354 616 372 869 184 511 

911 164 600 261 846 451 772 988 

554 897 744 755 595 336 749 559 

167 972 195 833 254 820 256 127 

554 119 234 959 137 533 258 323 



237 


564 


632 


674 


421 


258 


326 


267 


492 


278 


263 


158 


988 


885 


770 


854 


679 


947 


318 


745 


465 


600 


753 


684 


513 


522 


949 


121 


114 


874 


199 


358 


468 


989 


746 


437 


676 


726 


469 


938 


731 


243 


653 


426 


729 


142 


643 


OkjO 


856 


334 


428 


953 


235 


355 


698 


493 


302 


669 


456 


674 


190 


947 


186 


775 


925 


142 


532 


329 


406 


351 


173 


239 


873 


622 


485 


172 


236 


537 


648 


584 


168 


479 


871 


426 


578 


227 


396 


157 


332 


283 


524 


951 


877 


725 


389 


617 


419 


791 


919 


537 


916 


598 


374 


624 


934 


808 


722 


989 


543 


906 


859 


467 


493 


253 


456 


565 


593 


763 


191 


369 


529 


419 


216 


230 


956 


195 


423 


511 


156 


952 


862 


673 


439 


480 


849 


245 


224 


522 


424 


258 * 


309 


102 


342 


233 



222 



CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 





Sti 


ibtraction 






(Time Allowed, Four Minutes) 




114957187 
90271797 


94752808 
67349640 


Itiplica 


106089449 
16915390 


99833978 
73160227 


115171700 
63087381 


82484740 
48207825 


115916913 
55536329 


72229470 
45049173 


146246252 
52160891 


80630266 
68164329 


124485018 
73098624 


107419373 
65348405 


37953635 
23913884 


137825921 
62729490 


152695030 
85612816 


178976226 
93060303 


97089301 
20203267 


93994413 
54783938 


108051861 
73463849 


163130569 
91061255 


168354186 
70537861 


188545364 
92471259 


120981427 
64188045 


105755782 
90863147 




Mu 


tio 






(Time Allowed, Six Minutes) 




8259 
28 


3467 
93 


4637 
82 


' 2859 
47 


7436 
65 


5289 
39 


6473 
740 


8529 
56 


8632 
206 


5947 
62 


3268 
95 


4795 
83 


7954 
74 


2386 
38 


9745 
59 


6283 
47 


9624 

503 


7853 
35 


4926 
620 


5873 
49 


"2964 
94 


8357 
87 


6249 
78 


3785 
35 


4965 
19 



ARITHMETIC 



223 



Division 
(Time Allowed, Eight Minutes) 



24)6984 
78)62868 



95)85880 



36)10440 



87)81867 



42)17682 



63)26460 



59)50799 



36)16236 



87)61161 



95)69350 



24)10800 



63)42903 



42)28560 



59)29913 



78)44538 



29)24679 



57)51642 



38)32300 



64)61504 



46)34086 



75)55500 



92)27784 



83)26643 



The results of the Courtis tests given to thousands of 
children in many different towns and cities show that, to be 
as good as the average, pupils should be able to work the 
following number of examples in the respective grades, with 
one hundred per cent, of accuracy. The examples have been 
so devised that all are of equal difficulty so that a child who 
gets three correct has done exactly half as much as one who 
gets six. 

Subtraction 

No. 

examples 

4 

6 

8 

10 

11 

12 





Addition 




No. 


Grade 


examples 


3 


3 


4 


5 


5 


7 


6 


9 


7 


11 


8 


12 



Multiplication 


Division 


No. 


No. 


examples 


examples 


3 


2 


5 


4 


7 


6 


9 


8 


10 


10 


11 


11 



Material — What to Teach 

In accordance with the point of view already emphasized, 
the material we teach in arithmetic must be selected to ac- 
complish the aim we desire to reach. In general this will 



224 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

mean to teach less arithmetic and teach it better. The rela- 
tively useless and obsolete matter which has characterized 
many of our texts for years must give way to additional 
drill upon the fundamentals, and to the solution of an abun- 
dance of genuine problems related to actual affairs. 

The first year. — During the first school year the child 
will have some touch, however simple, with fully one-half of 
the eight groups of knowledge mentioned on page 218. The 
following is an approximation of what should be presented 
under ordinary conditions i 1 

Counting. Teach to count objects of all sorts up to one 
hundred. Also teach to count by naming numbers only, up 
to one hundred ten ; to take half of an object or groups of 
objects. 

Writing and reading numbers. Teach to write all num- 
bers counted; to read all numbers counted; also to read 
numbers from pages of reader as far as the numbers go. 
The critical part here is to drill on the figures from 1 to 19 
until they are quickly and unerringly associated with the 
number counted. Proceeding into the next decades will 
then be relatively easy. 

Using money. Children of the present day very early learn 
the value and use of money in the home. Buying and selling 
can therefore be profitably used as the basis for much prac- 
tical work in developing the number sense. Teach to buy 
and sell using toy or real money, and making change in all 
amounts up to ten cents. 

Measuring. The child should learn to measure common 
objects in feet and inches with a clearly marked ruler. It 
is better to have inch marks only at first. Also to recognize 
the yard-stick. To recognize pint, quart and gallon meas- 



1 Many schools prefer to give less the first year and correspond- 
ingly more later. 



ARITHMETIC 225 

ures, and count number of pints in a quart, and quarts in 
a gallon by use of measures. 

Addition and Subtraction. Practise differs widely on the 
question of teaching formal addition and subtraction during 
the first year. The recent Massachusetts course of study in 
arithmetic {Bulletin 66) leaves all such work until the sec- 
ond year. In states where the school age is fixed at five 
years it is certainly a mistake to attempt any great amount 
of formal instruction in addition and subtraction in the first 
grade. Where these topics are taught, the addition com- 
binations should probably not go beyond about the first 
twenty of the forty-five. The subtraction may be taught by 
the Austrian (or addition) method, thus: 

76589 
—32454 



4 and 5 are 9 

5 and 3 are 8 
4 and 1 are 5 

2 and 4 are 6 

3 and 4 are 7 

Second year. — Review all work of the preceding year. 

Counting. Review counting by ones and work for speed 
and certainty. Begin at any place in the series 1-100 and 
count to one hundred. Count by twos, fives and tens to one 
hundred. Build one hundred objects into groups of fives 
or tens, and then count groups to one hundred. 

Writing and reading numbers. Write readily and with 
accuracy all numbers counted. Read numbers as far as 
pages in reader go. Read and write the Roman numerals 
to XII. 

Addition. Review work of first grade. Complete all 
addition facts of the first twenty numbers, thus : 



226 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

1+1=2 3+1=4 

2+1=3 3+2=5 

2+2=4 3+3=6 

And so on to 10 and 10 equals 20. 

Column addition should be begun, using at first examples 
of one column with the sum not exceeding ten. Extend this 
to numbers of two figures each, columns to consist of three 
or four numbers, thus : 



4 


5 


4 


36 


24 


3 


3 


6 


21 


61 


2 


1 


2 


42 


53 




— . 


— 


— 


21 



Addition by endings should also be started at this time, 
using such exercises as the following : 

3 and 2 equals 5, therefore 23 and 2 equals 25. 
6 and 5 equals 11, therefore 26 and 5 equals 31. 

Subtraction. Teach subtraction facts -of the first twenty- 
numbers. This may be done first by the Austrian (addition) 
method, and then by taking away. 

2—1=1 4—1=3 

3—1=2 4—2=2 

3—2=1 4_3 = i 
Carry this to 20 — 19 = 1. 

Also teach subtraction by endings, as : 

9 — 3 equals 6, therefore 29 — 3 equals 26. 
11 — 4 equals 7, therefore 41 — 7 equals 34. 



ARITHMETIC 227 

Multiplication and division. Teach the facts of multi- 
plication and division of the first twenty numbers, as fol- 
lows: 

Two 2's equal 4 Two 2's in 4 

Three 2's equal 6 Three 2's in 6 

Four 2's equal 8 Four 2's in 8 

as far as as far as 

Ten 2's equal 20 Ten 2's in 20 

Two 3's equal 6 Two 3's in 6 

Three 3's equal 9 Three 3's in 9 

Four 3's equal 12 Four 3's in 12 

as far as as far as 

Seven 3's equal 21 Seven 3's in 21 

Measuring. Teach to measure with increasing exactness 
the lengths of lines or such objects as tables, desks, boxes, in 
feet, inches, half -inches, or quarter-inches ; to measure 
quickly and accurately with pints, quarts and gallons ; to 
measure in pecks, half-bushels and bushels where required 
in the work of the school ; to weigh in pounds and ounces ; 
to know the time of day on the clock ; to know day of week 
and month from a calendar; to know and draw straight, 
curved, horizontal and vertical lines. 

Using money. By means of buying and selling with the 
use of toy or real money teach how to make change in cent, 
five-cent and ten-cent pieces for all amounts up to fifty 
cents. 

Fractions. The child should learn to divide an object or 
a group into halves or quarters ; to fill a measure half full, 
or empty out one-half ; to know a half -hour and a quarter- 
hour on the clock. 

Third year. — Continue review and drill on all the fun- 
damentals of the first two years. This is the time to make 
the elementary operations automatic. 



228 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Reading and writing numbers. Train to read and write 
numbers of five figures; to read and write all common 
fractions with numerators or denominators of one figure. 

Addition and subtraction. Teach column additions with 
numbers of two and three figures ; adding from top of col- 
umn as check for correct result ; how to carry from columns 
that add to ten or more ; subtraction of numbers of three 
figures ; how to "borrow" when lower number is larger than 
upper; how to test correctness of result in subtraction; 
terms sum, minuend, subtrahend, remainder ; easy problems 
involving addition and subtraction. 

Multiplication and division. Make sure of the following : 
the multiplication tables complete to ten times ten; division 
of numbers of three figures by divisors of one figure ; terms 
multiplicand, multipliers, product, dividend, divisor, quo- 
tient, remainder; application of multiplication and division 
to simple concrete problems. 

Measuring. Teach measures of volume, both liquid and 
dry ; lines and surfaces ; drawing of squares and rectangles, 
and measuring of their perimeters ; horizontal, vertical and 
inclined and parallel lines; right, acute and obtuse angles; 
square, rectangle, triangle, circle; all terms employed in 
measuring. 

Fractions. Present the following: dividing objects and 
groups into halves, fourths and eighths ; simple problems in- 
volving the use of y 2 , %, }i, Ya, Vd,, etc. 

Using money. Teach the simple operations of buying and 
selling that require the handling of money and making of 
change up to two dollars. 

Fourth year. — The work of this grade is chiefly an ex- 
tension of the work already begun, as follows : reading and 
writing numbers carried to seven figures ; addition and sub- 
traction will involve much drill in rapid sight work, with 



ARITHMETIC 229 

written work for accuracy and speed ; multiplication by num- 
bers of two and three figures ; division with remainders ; long 
division with divisors of two and three figures. In both the 
fourth and the fifth grades, drills should be given to bring 
the pupils up to the standard of the Courtis tests. Measuring 
is to be continued, with chief tables learned and concrete 
problems solved; common fractions extended and decimals 
begun. Many practical problems should be given from this 
time on in all the different phases of the work, both to add 
interest and to show the application of numbers to actual 
affairs. 

Fifth and sixth years.— Teach reading and writing 
numbers up to ten figures. Review and drill upon addition, 
subtraction, multiplication and division. Drill on factors 
and their products; common fractions added, subtracted, 
multiplied and divided ; decimals up to three or four places ; 
mixed numbers ; all common measures ; buying and selling, 
with losses and gains ; percentage in the sixth year ; bills and 
receipts. 

Seventh and eighth years. — The drill for accuracy and 
speed is to be continued in the fundamental operations, both 
with whole numbers and fractions common to business 
operations. Emphasize the following: extension of meas- 
uring and much practical application to genuine problems; 
taxes; life and property insurance; bonds and mortgages; 
banking methods; promissory notes; ratio and simple pro- 
portion ; powers and square root. 

What to Omit in Arithmetic 

If arithmetic is to be taught as an efficient instrument for 
use in solving real problems, much traditional and obsolete 
material common to many texts should be omitted. The fol- 
lowing wise recommendations for omissions were made by 



230 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

the Committee on Elimination of the Iowa State Teachers' 
Association : 1 

1. Long method of greatest common divisor. 

2. Most of lowest common multiple. 

3. Long, confusing problems in common fractions. 

4. Long method of division of fractions. (Always in- 
vert and multiply.) 

5. Complex and compound fractions. 

6. Apothecaries' weight, troy weight, the furlong in long 
measure, the rood in square measure, dram and quarter in 
avoirdupois weight, the surveyor's table, the table of folding 
paper, tables of foreign money, all reduction of more than 
two steps. 

7. Most of longitude and time. 

8. Cases in percentage. (Make one case by using x and 
the equation.) 

9. True discount. 

10. Most of compound and annual interest, 

11. Partial payments, except the simplest. 

12. Profit and loss as a separate topic. 

13. Partnership. 

14. Cube root. 

Organization and Presentation — Instruction 

The immediate point of contact in arithmetic is found in 
the child's relations to his environment — the need for num- 
bering and measuring the things about him. Arithmetic 
material should be so organized that it grows out of and re- 
lates to these needs. The knowledge learned and the appli- 
cations made will then have a value and call forth an interest 
unknown where the material is chiefly abstract, or unrelated 
to actual conditions. Arithmetic thus correlated with other 
studies and activities becomes an indispensable tool con- 
stantly used in all common affairs in the school and outside. 

Use of the concrete in elementary number. — The older 

1 See 1916 Report. 



ARITHMETIC 231 

method was to teach the child to count to ten or to one hun- 
dred in the abstract, and to learn that two and two are four 
in general. When the child first naturally begins to count 
he counts something, and does not merely say over the names 
of numbers. When he first naturally begins to add and sub- 
tract he adds and subtracts objects and not the symbols we 
call figures. The first instruction in number should likewise 
be with objects. These objects should, as far as possible, be 
real objects commonly dealt with in every-day experience, 
and not chiefly splints, pegs, tiles, bits of colored paper, etc., 
which are too artificial for the best results. Apples, pieces of 
candy, the members of the class, the windows of the room, 
desks and a hundred other objects ready at hand afford a 
better type of material. 

Having said we should begin with objects we must now 
hasten to say that objective teaching of number should not 
continue too long. The child must come to think numbers 
in the abstract — to know at once that three and four are 
seven without referring actually or mentally to three objects 
and four objects. The tendency of many children to add on 
their fingers or by means of drawing marks is due to failure 
to break away from the objective. 

No rule can be given as to the amount of objective teach- 
ing to employ before advancing to the abstract. The teacher 
must judge by the response and understanding of the child. 
Nor will the transition be abrupt. Recourse will often 
be had to objects after abstract work is begun in order to 
clear the child's understanding of a difficult point, or to 
make concrete application of some fact learned. The prin- 
ciple to keep in mind is that objects are used as an aid in 
developing the sense of abstract number, and should not be 
allowed to hinder in this development. 

Processes and their applications. — The two broad 
phases of arithmetic mastery have already been mentioned — 



232 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

that (1) of the processes, adding, multiplying, etc., and (2) 
the application of these processes to the solution of problems. 
The first of these is to be made mechanical and automatic, 
the second requires logical thinking. 

In the early years, facility in the processes is the primary 
aim. This is to be secured largely by repetition and drill, 
with a minimum of explanation of the reasons involved. For 
example, the child should not at first have explained to him 
why he is to invert the divisor in dividing one fraction by an- 
other, he is to learn zuhat is to be done, and then to practise 
in this until skill comes. He is not to be troubled in the be- 
ginning with the reasons that underlie factoring and the 
finding of the greatest common divisor; he is to learn the 
process and develop skill in its use. 

This does not mean that arithmetic must be all mechan- 
ical, and thus fail to test and train the power of thinking. 
But the fundamental reasons lying back of many of even 
the simpler number processes are far beyond the grasp of the 
child and will but bewilder and discourage him. The op- 
portunity to train the child in reasoning comes in the applica- 
tion of the elementary processes to the solution of problems. 
And at this point the teacher must not fail, for it is one of 
the best opportunities to be found in the whole range of 
school work. 

The International Commission on the Teaching of Mathe- 
matics expresses the conviction that "there is still an in- 
evitable tendency among pupils to become formal even in 
what seems real thought work." A group of this commission 
was testing a certain class of children in their ability to 
think in arithmetic, and gave them the following problem i 1 
"A man hitches up a horse to a buggy and drives three hours 
at the rate of six miles an hour. How much farther would 

1 The American Report, Bulletin 460, of the U. S. Bureau of 
Education, page 76. 



ARITHMETIC 233 

he have gone if he had hitched up two horses?" All the 
pupils but one in the class doubled the distance. This prob- 
lem was also tried on a large number of children : "If a duck 
weighs three pounds when it is standing on one leg, what 
does it weigh when standing on two legs?" Nearly all 
answered that it would weigh twice as much. Such errors 
suggest the necessity for teaching children really to read 
problems. 

The teacher must with patience and with skill teach the 
children to think in solving their problems. By leading them 
to see the reasoning involved, and by placing the premium 
of approval or praise on really thoughtful work, the practise 
of guessing, or of working by hook or crook for the "an- 
swer" can be discouraged. Especially can this be done when 
arithmetic is correlated with the other work of the school 
and made to do real and honest service of a practical kind. 

Reviews and drills. — The amount of review and drill 
required in the lower grades puts a very great strain on the 
teacher's ingenuity. For both psychology and experience 
teach us that the price of attention and interest is variety, 
Change, novelty. Mere repetition does not constitute drill, 
nor result in skill. Kirby tested over seven hundred fourth- 
grade children for speed and accuracy in addition and then 
gave them sixty minutes' practise (divided into short peri- 
ods) in adding, each child working under the incentive of 
seeing how much he could better his record. 1 The effect of 
this one hour of practise under stress of keen concentration 
was an increase of over fifty per cent, in speed with no loss 
in accuracy. The same results were obtained from drill in 
division under similar conditions. 

Singsonging the multiplication table in sleepy concert, 
droning through the combinations in addition, or lazily and 
leisurely performing any other drill work is futile, for only 

1 Practice in the Case of School Children, page 12, fit. 



234 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

an alert mind profits by repetition. The old adage of "ac- 
curacy first, then speed" is false. Accuracy and reasonable 
speed go together, and they should be trained together from 
the first. The skilful teacher will devise games; get up 
competitions, keeping a record of scores posted from day to 
day that each may compare his record with that of others 
and also with his own previous records ; arrange devices for 
quick drilling, etc., to supply the required practise and at the 
same time secure the fullest response from the pupils. All 
this demands time, thought and energy on the part of the 
teacher, but nothing easy will succeed. 

There are many simple devices like the circle with a cer- 
tain figure at its center and the figures to be used in com- 
binations with it around the circumference. As the figures 
at the circumference are pointed to by the teacher or a 
pupil the answer is spoken by the one reciting. It is evident 
that such a device can be used for subtraction, multiplication 
and division as well as for addition. The teacher should de- 
velop a plentiful supply of such devices and freely use them. 

Inductive method in arithmetic— In dealing with the 
thought phases of arithmetic the inductive method should 
as a rule be employed. This means that new topics will be 
developed with objects or illustrations rather than being in- 
troduced by rules and definitions. For example, decimals 
may very easily and naturally be presented by connecting 
them with common fractions. 

Have a list of common fractions written on the board. 
Then have the pupil write the decimal form under each 
common fraction, thus : 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 



TO" TS" 

.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 

Repeat with hundredths and thousandths and drill until 
the proper associations are formed. Develop the idea of 



ARITHMETIC 235 

percentage in the same way. Have the tables of measures 
developed by actual measuring. Develop rules for finding 
area of squares, rectangles and triangles by drawing to scale 
and counting the resulting units, and so on. 

Standards of success. — -Children, like adults, do better 
when they are meeting with a reasonable degree of suc- 
cess. Nothing cripples power and paralyzes effort like the 
discouragement that comes from constant defeat. The child 
must feel a sense of mastery in his work. He must know 
that he is making progress and attaining skill. This all 
argues that our teaching and the child's learning must be 
thorough and complete enough that our pupils are not lost 
in a haze of doubtful mastery and half-seen truths. Let us 
teach only what can be carried through to reasonably com- 
plete mastery. Then let us be sure of that mastery. 

The practical carrying out of this point of view will de- 
mand that we introduce all new topics and conduct all drills 
with rather small and simple numbers instead of with large 
and cumbersome ones. For example, many exercises with 
reasonably small dividends and divisors afford a better train- 
ing in long division than a few long, complicated ones with 
a large percentage of failure to secure the correct result. 
The common fractions most used in business are those with 
the denominators shown in the following list : 



1 


2 


1 


2 


3 


9 


3 


7 


2 


3 


T 


T 


¥ 


1 


TT 


3TT 



The decimals commonly employed in actual computations 
of non-technical kinds most often do not exceed two places, 
more rarely run to three places, and very seldom reach four 
places. But within this relatively simple range speed and 
accuracy are demanded. Here then must be our standards : 
Speed and accuracy in the simpler mechanical operations, 
speed, accuracy and clearness of thinking in the solution of 
the simpler practical problems of every-day life. 



236 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 



Miscellaneous Suggestions 

1. Start each new topic with a review of the old material 
on which it is based. This will serve to weld the two to- 
gether, increasing the value of each. 

2. Give as much individual attention as your time will 
permit, so as to discover and remedy the troubles peculiar 
to each child. 

3. Keep a sharp look-out for the beginning of bad habits, 
such as counting on the fingers, writing down numbers to 
be carried, etc. It is easier to form than to reform. 

4. Use every effort to prevent guessing, or the try-try- 
again method of solving problems. Train the children to 
think as they proceed. 

5. In conducting drill work on number combinations after 
the first year, see that enough concrete problems are brought 
in so that arithmetic shall from the first impress the pupils 
as a tool, and not something merely to be learned. 

6. Cultivate the art of neatness and accuracy in all written 
work. Training in habits of such kinds are almost as im- 
portant as the number material itself. 

7. Do not place too great dependence, especially in the 
lower grades, in definitions and rules. They may be but 
mere words, devoid of meaning to the child. See that the 
meaning and application of a rule or principle is developed 
before it is committed to memory. 

8. Grade all work so carefully that the children proceed 
naturally from one task to another, and thus do not have too 
many new things thrust on them at one time. 

9. Be sure that the problems given for solution are clearly 
understood. Often children do not know how to proceed 
because they do not understand the meaning of the problem. 

10. Hold pupils to a high standard of accuracy. It may 



ARITHMETIC 237 

be well at times to grade work (1) for correctness of prin- 
ciple, (2) for accuracy of results. Lead the pupils to see 
that practical business demands accuracy. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Study carefully the standards set in the chapter for knowledge 
and attitudes and judge whether your pupils are being trained to 
measure up to the required standards. Do you find that your at- 
tempt to work out this problem tends to make your teaching more 
definite ? 

2. Secure if you can a supply of the Courtis Tests by which to 
measure the skill of your pupils, grade by grade. If you find them 
generally deficient as compared with the averages shown on page 223, 
what is the remedy? 

3. Do you find the problems of your arithmetic text concrete and 
within the grasp of your pupils, or are they formal and too difficult? 
What would be the advantage of substituting problems taken from 
other subjects, such as agriculture, geography and manual training, 
for some of the work of the text? 

4. What devices have you for securing drill on fundamental 
number combinations without allowing the work to become mo- 
notonous from repetition? Is there any use to drill with slack atten- 
tion? Do you employ games and competition? 

5. How many of the topics recommended for omission have you 
been teaching? If you drop them is there any danger of your pupils 
not being able to pass the eighth-grade examination set by some 
higher authority for graduation? Many superintendents give their 
teachers to understand that no examination questions will be based 
on doubtful topics. 

REFERENCES 

Smith, The Teaching of Arithmetic. Ginn & Co., Chicago. 

Suzzallo, The Teaching of Primary Arithmetic. Houghton Mif- 
flin Co., New York. 

Brown and Coffman, How to Teach Arithmetic. Row, Peterson 
& Co., Chicago. 

McMurry, Special Method in Arithmetic. Macmillan Co., New 
York. 



238 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

U. S. Bureau of Education, Mathematics in the Elementary 
Schools. Washington, D. C. 

Stone, Arithmetical Abilities. Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
versity, New York. 

Courtis, Standard Tests in Arithmetic. S. A. Courtis, Detroit, 
Mich. 

Massachusetts Board of Education, A Course of Study in Arith- 
metic. Boston, Mass. 



CHAPTER XIV 



GEOGRAPHY 




EOGRAPHY is one of the broadest and richest of 
school subjects. Its business is to describe the earth 
as related to the interests, needs and activities of man. It 
must, therefore, deal with many kinds of knowledge, both 
about the earth itself and also about man. Geography finds 
its subject-matter in the fields of many other subjects, being 
obliged to call upon the material sciences, the social sciences, 
mathematics, etc., for many of its facts. Yet these facts are 
treated differently when brought over into geography from 
what they are in their own field, for in geography they are 
always used to describe or explain the earth as the home of 
man. 

Nature of geography. — From this point of view we 
can say, then, that the interests, needs and activities of man 
are the starting point of geography. They determine what 
shall be its material and what its method. Put more con- 
cretely it means this : we shall teach in geography those facts 
and only those facts that have a direct bearing on man's re- 
lation to the earth — facts that matter in man's activity in 
making the earth into a home. We shall omit from ele- 
mentary geography many curious but irrelevant facts that 
have no bearing on the central thought, the earth as man's 
home. 

The older geography did not proceed from this point of 
view. It taught the earth very much as a thing-in-itself, 
without much reference to our relation to or interest in many 
of the things taught. Hour after hour in the geography class 

239 



240 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

we droned the names of unimportant capes, bays, straits, 
gulfs and peninsulas, which, though we may since have read 
and traveled much, we have yet to meet outside the old geog- 
raphy. We developed great skill in "bounding" all the coun- 
tries of Europe and Asia, but we actually knew very little 
of people or products outside the boundaries of our own 
township. We could glibly tell the names of the rivers, 
large and small, in many states, but had no notion whence 
the little creek that flowed past our playground came or 
whither it went. 

The Ainir—What We Seek Through Geography 

The great aim in teaching geography is to lead the child 
to know and appreciate his earth-home and adjust himself 
to it. As in the case of other subjects this will require on his 
part the gathering of certain knowledge, the cultivation of 
certain attitudes, and the training of certain skills. 

Knowledge required through geography. — What, then, 
should the child learn through his geography? What does 
he most need to know about the earth as his home in order 
to live broadly, happily and successfully upon it ? The fol- 
lowing are the chief groups of knowledge that the study of 
geography should supply: 

1. Orientation, or knowledge of location, distance and 
direction in space. Much practical knowledge of this sort is 
picked up outside the school, but to the school will remain 
the task of making the knowledge broad and accurate. Our 
minds are so constituted that they ask where almost as con- 
stantly as why or what. The child should come through 
geography to know the location, distance and direction of 
chief countries, cities, oceans, rivers, mountains, etc., of 
the earth. 

2. Climate and seasons. Much of man's welfare and 



GEOGRAPHY 241 

comfort depend on climatic conditions. Climate determines 
the distribution of vegetation and animal life, and thereby 
affects industries, transportation, the location of cities, and 
many other important interests. 

3. Natural resources. The child should come, through 
the study of geography, to know the heritage of wealth sup- 
plied by nature in the fertility of the soil, the forests, rivers, 
lakes, mines, etc., which man uses to build the material side 
of civilization. 

4. Industries. Work is one of the greatest and most 
universal of human interests. Through work man seizes 
upon natural resources and energies and out of them con- 
structs the necessities, comforts and luxuries of life. Ac- 
quaintance with this world of industry should come to the 
child through geography. 

5. Sources of food, clothing and shelter. These are three 
great fundamental human needs. Geography should en- 
lighten the child concerning their production and use. 

6. Travel and transportation. Modern inventions and 
discoveries and the growing wealth of nations have brought 
all parts of the world into touch with one another. People 
travel from place to place and merchandise is shipped to 
the ends of the earth. Every person of intelligence must 
understand this current of activity, and the highways of 
trade and travel. 

7. Peoples and places. The fact that modern means of 
transportation and communication bring the whole world 
to our doors makes it imperative that we know something 
of peoples and places distant from us. Important countries, 
states, cities, political units, races and nationalities are to be 
studied through geography. 

Attitudes to be developed.— Geography touches so 
many sides of the child's life that it is especially fruitful in 



242 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

opportunities for cultivating worthy attitudes and interests. 
Some of these are the following : 

1. Interest in the world of nature. Geography brings the 
child to know and appreciate the fruitful earth, the world 
of growing things, the plants and animals that supply him 
food, clothing, shelter and other comforts. It leads him 
to the rivers, springs and lakes and bids him use, admire, 
enjoy. It acquaints him with the majesty of mountain and 
ocean. It causes him to wonder over the noisy power of 
wind and wave, and likewise over the quiet energy of the 
rain-drop, the dew and the frost. Through this awe, admira- 
tion and love of nature the child is laying one of the surest 
foundations for a true religion. 

2. Appreciation of the value and dignity of work. Geog- 
raphy should bring the child to contemplate the world's 
work in its ceaseless round of service to his comfort and 
needs. To realize that a hundred workers have contributed, 
each his part, to the breakfast enjoyed by the child is to 
broaden his sympathy and understanding of life. It is also 
to make him feel his share and responsibility as a worker 
that he may repay the debt. 

3. Broader social interests. Geography, like history, 
serves to cure the child of his provincial and local attitudes 
and interests. It should develop in him an interest in the 
people of other lands and their mode of life. It should ex- 
cite curiosity as to their type of .home life, their cities, 
churches, schools, and the whole range of their civic affairs. 
It should lead to broader sympathies and to admiration of 
the good qualities and achievements of other nations. 

4. Desire to travel and read. A desire for broader read- 
ing and travel should be one of the best results of geography 
study. Once this desire is well grounded it will prove a 
strong factor in promoting growth and education, and will 
insure the cultivation of strong and worthy interests. 



GEOGRAPHY 243 

5. Appreciation and enjoyment of the world. The study 
of geography should add much to the enjoyment of life. It 
should help one to understand the meaning of Stevenson's, 

"The world is so full of a number of things, 
I'm sure we should all be as happy as kings." 

There are many persons who are living relatively narrow, 
sordid and barren lives simply from failure to enter into 
the wonderful world of nature, men and action about them. 
A proper study of geography should open the child's eyes 
and heart to the appreciation of his world. 

Skills to be trained. — -The study of geography should 
train certain definite skills, among which are the following: 

1. Skill in quickly picturing in the imagination, or think- 
ing, important places or peoples with their orientation when 
reading, listening and planning. 

2. Skill in reading maps representing any portion of the 
earth or its products. This will include direction, scale, 
and topography, with the symbols for cities, countries, etc. 

3. Skill in judging climatic conditions and their effects 
on the products or industries of different regions; as of 
frosts in subtropical regions, extended droughts, floods, 
tornadoes, etc. 

4. Skill in planning business enterprises, vacation trips, 
travel, etc. 

5. Skill in locating in the mind or on a map or globe 
the more important countries, cities, land and water forms, 
etc., of the earth. The following minimum essentials in 
skill for seventh-grade pupils in locating on an unlettered 
map are recommended by the Iowa Committee on Elimina- 
tion of useless subject-matter: 1 



Report, 1916, page 135. 



244 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

"Continents. — North America, South America, Europe, 
Asia, Africa, Australia. 

"Oceans. — Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Arctic 
Ocean, Antarctic Ocean, Indian Ocean. 

"Countries of North America. — United States, Canada, 
Mexico, Central America. 

"States and Possessions of the United States. — Home 
state especially, the remaining forty-seven states. Also Cuba, 
Alaska, Porto Rico, Hawaiian Islands, Philippines. 

"Gulfs and Bays of North America. — Gulf of St. Law- 
rence, Gulf of Mexico, San Francisco Bay, Puget Sound, 
Chesapeake Bay, Hudson Bay. 

"Lakes of North America. — Lake Superior, Lake Mich- 
igan, Lake Huron, Lake St. Clair, Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, 
Lake Champlain. 

"Parks. — Yellowstone Park, Yosemite Park, Niagara 
Falls, Grand Canyon. 

"Cities of North America. — Boston, New York, Phila- 
delphia, Pittsburgh, Washington, New Orleans, Galveston, 
Chicago, St. Louis, Cleveland, Buffalo, Grand Rapids, Cin- 
cinnati, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Duluth, Denver, Salt Lake 
City, San Francisco, Seattle, Los Angeles, Baltimore, Ha- 
vana, Detroit, Des Moines, Toronto, Montreal, Quebec, 
Winnipeg, Vancouver. 

"South America. — Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Val- 
paraiso, Andes Mountains, Amazon River, La Plata River, 
Orinoco River, Cape Horn, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Co- 
lumbia. 

"Africa. — Suez Canal, Strait of Gibraltar, Mediter- 
ranean Sea, Red Sea, Egypt, Sahara Desert, Cape of Good 
Hope, Cape Town, Alexandria, Cairo, Nile River, Niger 
River, Congo River, Zambesi River, Pyramids, British Col- 
onies. 

"Australia and Ocean Islands. — Sydney, Melbourne, 
East Indies, New Zealand. 

"Asia. — Japan, China, India, Siberia, Caspian Sea, 
Dead Sea, Himalaya Mountains, Mount Everest, Pekin, 
Bombay, Calcutta, Tokio, Yokohama, Hong Kong, Vladi- 
vostock, Manila, Honolulu, Jerusalem, Yangtze River, Ho- 
ang Ho River, Ganges River, Euphrates River. 



GEOGRAPHY 245 

"Countries of Europe. — Austria-Hungary, Belgium, 
England, Ireland, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, 
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Russia, Scotland, Spain, 
Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Wales, Balkan Peninsula. 

"Cities of Europe. — Liverpool, London, Glasgow, Edin- 
burg, Dublin, Belfast, The Hague, Brussels, Paris, Havre, 
Lyons, Verdun, Rome, Venice, Florence, Genoa, Athens, 
Constantinople, Vienna, Geneva, Berlin, Hamburg, Bremen, 
Cologne, Petrograd, Warsaw, Moscow, Odessa, Madrid. 

"Seas and Straits. — North Sea, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, 
Adriatic Sea, English Channel, Dardanelles. 

"Rivers. — Thames, Rhine, Seine, Danube, Volga, 
Marne. 

"Mountains. — Alps, Carpathians, Mt. Blanc, Mt. Ve- 



suvius." 



The Subject-Matter of Geography 

There is such an abundance of rich material available 
for the course in geography that no time should be wasted 
on trivial, empty or valueless subject-matter. Unimportant 
or out-of-the-way places not likely to be met in one's read- 
ing, business or travel should claim no time. The memoriz- 
ing of the names of long lists of capes, bays, peninsulas, 
gulfs, straits, etc., of minor importance is a waste of energy, 
interest and opportunity, and therefore not to be required. 
All that is taught should have a very real and evident re- 
lation to the earth as the home of man. Any material that 
can not measure up to this requirement has no place in the 
course. 

First- and second-grade material. — Geography will not, 
of course, form a separate branch for first and second 
grades. Nor will any formal geography be taught. The 
material will arise naturally out of the child's immediate 
contacts and experiences and will be used as a basis for read- 
ing and language work. 



246 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Orientation. Most children have some sense of direc- 
tion, distance and location before they begin school. Some 
do not. All need to have this sense trained. The follow- 
ing should be taught and drilled upon by questions and 
games until all are certain and quick : 

right hand (or direction) west 

left hand (or direction) northeast 

north northwest 

south southeast 

east southwest 

Drills may be based on direction of school from home, 
from church, store, etc. That the locations may be real to 
the child have him point or move toward various objects, 
buildings and the like as well as tell the direction. 

Natural environment. This is not too early to begin 
teaching the child to see, hear and notice the objects about 
him. Observation lessons may deal with the following: 

Place where sun rises Shape of new moon 

Place where sun sets Full moon 

Time of sunrise and sunset Other shapes of moon 

Direction sun moves The stars. 

The sun at noon Direction wind blows 

Color of clouds Snow and its crystals 

Movements of clouds ; wind Sleet and ice 

Thunder and lightning Uses of rain 

Products and industries. The child is not yet ready for 
formal distant geography, but his attention can be centered 
and his interest stimulated by lessons based on objects im- 
mediately at hand ; as for example : 

Where does the sugar for your breakfast come from? 
The leather for your shoes ? 
The cotton for your apron? 
The orange for your lunch? 



GEOGRAPHY 247 

There will at this stage be no attempt to teach the exact 
localities for such products, but only to develop the idea 
of distance, other locality, and distant people at work to 
supply our wants. 

Third-grade material. — The home community and its 
locality will supply the greater part of the material for this 
grade. No text-book is required. The aim should be to 
bring the child into immediate contact with nature, indus- 
tries and people and lead him to observe and understand 
his immediate environment. The six classes of knowledge 
requirement listed on page 240 will suggest the outline of 
material. 

Orientation and maps. The child should by this stage 
know the directions, and the location of many principal 
buildings and places in the vicinity. It is now time to begin 
the use of maps. Much depends on getting the first ideas 
of direction on the map right. Many persons who first 
studied the map while it was so hung that they faced the 
south have trouble all their lives to think of the top as 
north, the right as east and so on. 

The first map that the child studies should be made on 
a large sheet of paper placed on the floor. The class should 
stand facing the north with the map before them while the 
teacher draws the school yard and places in it the school- 
house and a few familiar objects, keeping the scale accurate. 
The directions having been thoroughly learned on the map, 
it is then immediately to be hung up on the north wall with 
the children still facing it. The directions are again at once 
drilled over. The same process should be repeated the next 
day, extending the map to include the wider neighborhood 
around. 

Geography excursions. Geography can not at this stage, 
or any stage, be taught solely in the school room. There 
must be excursions into the home neighborhood and trips 



248 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

to near-by points of interest to bring the child into contact 
with the objects of study. Only in this way can he be 
taught to observe, and to understand what he observes. The 
excursion or trip will of course furnish a basis for later 
discussion and instruction in the class room. Among the 
objects and activities to be studied in the home-excursions 
are the following : 

The local industries that supply food or clothing. 

Sources of building materials, as lumber mills or yards, 
brick kilns, etc. 

Streams, springs, valleys, hills, lakes, islands, woods, etc. 

Public buildings, such as post-office and court-house, mon- 
uments, parks, etc. 

Markets, depots, railway yards, showing transportation. 

Local bridges, trolley lines, public highways. 

Mines, mills, factories, dairies. 

Observation of the weather and its effects. The weather, 
touching as it does the comfort and play of the child, is a 
source of never-failing interest. The pupils should be taught 
to read the thermometer and the barometer ; to understand 
weather signals ; to keep a record month by month of clear, 
cloudy and stormy days ; to note the changing length of day 
and night; the change of seasons; the changes in plant life 
with seasonal changes; the animal's change in covering for 
the seasons, etc. 

Pictures. The picture is an indispensable aid in teaching 
geography. The teacher should have an abundant supply of 
pictures gathered from many sources to illustrate every 
phase of the teaching. The pupils should be taught to make 
similar collections of cuts, views, post-cards, etc., to en- 
rich and illustrate their study. Much excellent material of 
this kind can be had at no expense save the trouble of col- 
lecting it. Some of the sources available are: pictures in 
magazines, travel guides issued by railways, booklets sent 



GEOGRAPHY 249 

out by commercial clubs, post-cards, pictures published by 
mills, factories and commercial concerns, government pub- 
lications. 

Fourth- and fifth-grade material. — The fourth and fifth 
grades cover the period usually devoted to the study of a 
first book in geography. In many schools the text is not 
introduced until the fifth year, the fourth year being de- 
voted to an extension of home geography and the gaining 
of certain broad ideas about the world as a whole. Which- 
ever the plan adopted, care must be taken that the child 
shall be kept close to objects and realities, and not be taught 
a mere text-book presentation of geography. Content must 
not be supplanted by an empty form of words when the 
book is taken up. 

Extension of home geography. Lines of study already 
begun should be continued. The pupils should draw maps 
of familiar places, and use outline maps to locate places 
and products until they are entirely at home in reading or 
using a map. Weather observations and records should be 
continued, and weather reports studied day by day for other 
regions of the country. Ideas of direction and distance 
should be still further developed, and applied to locating 
places of interest and importance. By this time the child 
should have a rather complete and accurate knowledge of 
the geography of his immediate locality. This should now be 
extended to include the broader region, such as the county, 
and finally the state. Trips that different members of the 
class have taken can be made to yield interesting facts and 
descriptions. Trips that are in project can be prepared for 
and rendered much more interesting and fruitful by suggest- 
ing points for observation and later report to the class. 

The great thing in continuing the home geography is to 
keep the child's knowledge and interests constantly expand- 
ing, and not dull the enthusiasm by repetition of matter al- 



250 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

ready covered. Growth can come only out of new and 
broadening experiences. 

Reaching out to the broader world. While the child's 
geography should begin with his home it must not stop 
there. Whether it is best to proceed from the home geog- 
raphy gradually outward to the geography of the state and 
then to that of North America, or to go at once from local 
geography to the concept of the earth as a whole is a ques- 
tion not yet definitely settled. Probably it does not greatly 
matter, so that we do well whichever we do. It would seem, 
however, that there are some advantages in teaching the 
fourth-grade child about the earth as a ball floating in space. 
His imagination is by this time capable of understanding 
it, and he will then be able to use the globe to some ad- 
vantage in his further study. Such a concept must of course 
be presented to the child with much concrete illustration by 
means of balls and globes. His imagination and understand- 
ing must master it, or the empty fact is worse than useless 
to him. 

The text-book material. The elementary text-book fur- 
nishes a problem for the teacher. Because the material 
must be brief, some authors have simply abbreviated and 
skeletonized their matter until they have taken all the life 
out of it. What is often left is a set of dry facts that have 
little meaning or reality to the child. The task of the teacher 
is to make this material live. To do this, it will be necessary 
to limit the topics discussed to a smaller number than those 
given in the average text, and then develop the topics chosen 
fully enough so that they will possess interest and signifi- 
cance. 

During this stage the industrial phase of geography rather 
than the political should be featured. By the time the fifth 
grade is finished the child should know where the most 



GEOGRAPHY 251 

of his food supply comes from and how it is produced; 
where his clothing is grown, where it is manufactured and 
under what general conditions; the great trade routes by 
land and water and the chief articles of commerce trans- 
ported. He should also know the great climatic regions and 
their general effect on products and industries. 

Sixth- and seventh-grade material. — Most courses of 
study plan to complete geography in the seventh grade, 
some in the sixth. A few continue it through the eighth 
grade; this should not be necessary. A complete text 
covering universal geography is usually employed, but the 
matter presented should be vastly broader than that con- 
tained in any text-book. The children's reading in books, 
magazines and newspapers should be freely used to con- 
tribute material. Events of importance, as wars, great com- 
mercial enterprises opening up new territory, irrigation or 
reclamation projects, the building of new railways or public 
highways, great fires, floods or other disasters all supply 
material and motive for the geography class. 

Study of North America. In cases where geography is 
to run through the seventh year the work of the sixth 
year should center on the study of North America. Many 
of the topics taken up will, of course, need to extend into 
other countries, but the emphasis will be placed on the home 
continent. 

From the sixth grade on the work is most successfully 
based on a topical outline. This will permit the use of the 
text and also allow the matter gleaned from outside sources 
to be organized as a part of the course. 

Europe. Approximately the first half of the seventh year 
should be given to a study of Europe. This continent stands 
next after North America in interest and importance. Its 
peoples, products, climate, industries, commerce, places of 



252 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

interest and governments should be the center of emphasis. 
The relation of these factors of European geography to 
American life should constantly be stressed. 

The remaining divisions. South America, Asia, Africa 
and the major islands remain for study. Of these, South 
America, because of the increasing closeness of our com- 
mercial relations with several of its countries, should receive 
the most attention. A general view of the more important 
features of Asia, Africa; Australia, etc., will suffice. 

What to eliminate. — It is as important to know what 
to omit as what to stress in geography. In the older day 
the children were overburdened with detail which meant 
nothing to them. Many are still thus overburdened. It 
would be impossible of course to make a catalogue of all 
that should be omitted from geography. The principle, as 
suggested earlier in the chapter, is to omit whatever has no 
significant, vital and demonstrable relation to man's effort to 
make the earth his home, A few illustrations of this prin- 
ciple will suffice i 1 

Mountains. Omit ranges except Rocky, Sierre Nevada, 
Cascade, Appalachian, Andes, Alps, Ural, Pyrenees, Cau- 
casus, Himalaya. Omit peaks except Rainier, Shasta, Hood, 
Washington, Pike's Peak, Cotopaxi, Blanc, Vesuvius and 
Everest. 

Rivers. Omit all except St. Lawrence, Hudson, Potomac, 
Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Arkansas, Rio Grande, Colo- 
rado, Columbia, Yukon, Mackenzie, Saskatchewan, Orinoco, 
Amazon, Plata-Parana, Hoang, Yangtze, Ganges, Indies, 
Euphrates, Volga, Danube, Rhone, Seine, Thames, Rhine, 
Elb, Nile, Niger, Zambesi, Kongo, principal rivers of state 
and county. 



1 Adopted in the main from the Report of the Minnesota Com- 
mittee on Elementary Course of Study, and the Report of the Iowa 
Committee on Elimination, 1915. 



GEOGRAPHY 253 

Lakes. Omit all except Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, 
Ontario, Great Salt Lake, Winnipeg, Titicaca, Caspian Sea. 

Capes. Omit all except Cod, Hatteras, Henry, Horn, 
North Cape, Land's End, Good Hope, Verde. 

Cities. Omit all capitals of states and of foreign countries 
except when commercially or otherwise of enough impor- 
tance to warrant their inclusion. Omit all but about sixty 
cities in the United States, selecting those to be taught on 
the basis of size, location, and commercial, historical or po- 
litical importance. Proceed on the same principle in other 
countries. 

The process of elimination should also extend to penin- 
sulas, gulfs, bays, straits, islands, etc., and to all minutiae 
of secondary importance. 

Organisation and Presentation 

No other subject offers the teacher greater opportunities 
than geography, and none more fully tests his ingenuity 
and skill. For geography touches a range of topics almost 
as broad as human experience, and these topics are all to be 
definitely related in their study to the genuine interests 
of the learner. The teacher therefore needs a broad range 
of ready information, a spontaneous and abounding interest 
in the world about him, and a true insight into the minds 
of children. 

The geography recitation. — The geography recitation, 
dealing as it does with the actual and concrete, should never 
become formal or mechanical. There is no place here for 
sheer memoriter answers to cut-and-dried questions from 
a text-book. This does not mean that the book itself should 
not be mastered; it should be. But the realization must 
always be present in the minds of teacher and class that 



254 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

the real material is not in the text-book, but consists of the 
earth and its people. 

The recitation in geography should have the spontaneity 
of an interesting conversation. All should take part. All 
should ask questions. All should answer questions. All 
should help plan the excursion, or formulate the problem. 
All should contribute something of information from ob- 
servations made, lessons studied, trips taken, or books and 
magazines read. Reports should be made, problems dis- 
cussed, stories read by all. Each must contribute his share, 
and the teacher must direct and organize all this material 
as it comes, so that it may not lose its effectiveness from 
lack of cohesiveness and unity. Such a recitation, requiring 
so wide a range of material and so great a variety of treat- 
ment, places a great strain on the teacher's skill. The ill- 
prepared or ambitionless teacher will shirk the opportunity 
and teach only the routine of the text-book. The teacher 
of ingenuity and power will make the geography recitation 
a source of joy and means of marvelous growth to his pupils. 

The teacher's preparation. — Under the older type of 
geography, which consisted chiefly of a definite array of 
facts about locations, sizes, divisions, etc.,. the teacher could 
prepare for his recitation by mastering the text-book. That 
contained all the material and nothing was expected outside. 
But the newer geography sets an entirely different problem. 
In it, even the best of text-books are more or less incidental. 
Geography has become a laboratory subject. Things are 
to be met at first hand, and a hundred sources constantly 
drawn upon for information. 

The teacher of geography, if he is to be more than an 
ineffectual hearer of empty recitations, must therefore know 
his world and its activities. For example, suppose the 
teacher takes his class on a trip to a flouring mill. He must 
know the history of the wheat that makes the flour, its 



GEOGRAPHY 255 

types, grades, where produced and so on. He must know 
enough of machinery to understand the process of manufac- 
ture. He must know enough of commerce to know the 
wheat and flour markets, and the transportation systems 
by which they are marketed. He must know enough of 
foods and cooking to understand the use of flour. And so 
for each of the objects, problems or industries studied. 
Otherwise the excursions and trips will degenerate into mere 
puttering waste of time, and geography will have failed of 
its aim. Let the teacher of geography therefore earnestly 
set at work to master his world of environment at first hand; 
it is well worth the effort. 

Teaching children how to study geography. — Many 
texts of geography are written chiefly as statements of so 
many facts. The great difficulty is to keep the pupils from 
learning these facts without imagination or comprehension, 
as empty memory exercises. This calamity can be saved 
only through teaching the children how to study. 

The geography lesson which is based on the text-book 
should first be carefully gone over by teacher and class 
together with books open. Together they should hunt out 
and discuss the important points of the lesson. Assignments 
to library books or other material should be made. Any 
maps that are to be drawn should be decided upon. The 
teacher's explanations on obscure points should be given 
and any other necessary help rendered. The teacher him- 
self may take the text and indicate to the class how he 
would prepare the lesson. If objection is made that all this 
takes time, the answer is that whatever time there is for 
the recitation should be used to the greatest possible ad- 
vantage. And there can be no more valuable use made of 
time than in teaching children how to study. 

Problem study. — Geography should be used to teach 
children to think. Indeed; very early in the course pupils 



256 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

should be led to see that the greater part of geography is 
not something to be remembered, but something to be ob- 
served, discovered, thought out, understood. To this end 
definite problems should be set, help rendered in collecting 
data bearing on them, and training given in their solution. 

For example, the class learns that Minneapolis is a great 
flour producing center, and Detroit the center of the auto- 
mobile industry. Why? New York has so far steadily out- 
grown San Francisco. Will it continue to do so, and if so, 
why? We find that the greater part of the trunk railway 
lines cross the country east and west instead of north and 
south. Why not the reverse? 

Such problems should be developed by teacher and class, 
or better still, formulated by the pupils themselves. A 
problem set by the teacher, with no particular interest in 
the question on the part of the class, may be as formal and 
empty an exercise as could be devised. The following are 
problems that have been successfully studied by classes in 
geography : 

Why does Argentine lead the South American countries ? 
Why should the United States control the Panama Canal ? 
If Florida can raise as good grapefruit as California, 
which will lead in die industry ? 

Why do the plains east of the Rockies have little rainfall ? 
Why has Pittsburgh developed great steel industries? 

The ingenious teacher will have no difficulty in discover- 
ing an abundance of such problems suited to the different 
grades. 

The use of maps. — Maps, outline and relief, are of the 
greatest help in teaching almost every phase of geography. 
They enable the eye to assist the mind by taking in through 
vision the location of places, peoples, resources, products, 
etc. They aid in fixing ideas of size, distance, direction. 



GEOGRAPHY 257 

fhey tend to objectify and render more concrete many 
facts that would otherwise merely be memorized but not 
understood. They allow the children to have something to 
do in filling in the maps as they learn the matter to be used. 

Outline maps should be supplied the children for certain 
uses. But the pupils should also be taught to make their 
own maps, and to mold relief maps to show topography 
and drainage systems. One map may be used to show lead- 
ing cities, and transportation routes ; another to show chief 
products; another to show climatic regions and areas of 
greatest rainfall, etc. 

Through imagination to reality. — As soon as the study 
of geography passes from the local community to the larger 
world outside the child must depend on his imagination to 
make verbal descriptions over into real objects. Many chil- 
dren fail at this point, and the people and places they read 
or hear about never become clear realities. Probably every 
child finds his imagination taxed beyond its power in trying 
to understand mountains, or the ocean, or a great city, with- 
out having seen these things. The writer had a large num- 
ber of fourth- and fifth-grade children in Chicago schools 
compare the height of a mountain and a factory smoke- 
stack. After telling that a mountain is "an elevation of 
land one thousand or more feet in height," nearly half of the 
children said that the chimney was the higher. Some ex- 
plained that "if the mountain went straight up like the chim- 
ney it would be the higher." 

The childish imagination easily seeks to account for many 
natural phenomena in strange ways. About three hundred 
high-school students were asked to describe their earliest 
notions about the following: 

The earth, size, shape, interior, etc. 
The ocean, depth, waves, saltiness. 



258 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

The horizon, where it is, and what. 
Rivers, where the water comes from and goes. 
Islands, base, height above water, etc. 
Whether lakes, rivers, islands, etc., studied on the nmps 
were thought of as real. 

About half the three hundred confessed to thinking of 
the earth as extending only to the horizon. Half of them 
thought it was a flat surface. A fourth of the number had 
pictured the earth as resting on some support, as a plat- 
form, a great table, or the shoulders of Atlas as seen in 
pictures. Some thought of the ocean as having no bottom; 
others thought of it as the depth of the brook that ran 
near their home. A goodly number had heard (and be- 
lieved) a story about a fabulous salt mill that had been 
thrown into the ocean and kept on producing salt. Many 
thought the waves were caused by ships, and that the tides 
were solid walls of water moving across the ocean. More 
than half believed the horizon to mark the "jumping off 
place." A few had set out in good faith to walk to it. 
Many thought of the water in the rivers as coming from 
the ocean. Nearly half declared that rivers, lakes, etc., 
studied on maps were to them only "so many black streaks," 
and never thought of as real. A surprisingly large number 
thought of islands as floating on top of the water. 

These testimonies of vagaries of childhood imagination 
suggest the need of constant care and help to insure the 
eradication of wrong ideas and the forming of right ones. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Recall the way you were taught geography. Did the method 
agree with the point of view of the chapter? How near is the point 
of view of your teaching of geography to that of the chapter? Are 
there points in the chapter with which you do not agree? 

2. Have you found children who had difficulty in knowing direc- 



GEOGRAPHY 259 

tions on the map? If so, was it due to erroneous first impressions 
by having the map hung elsewhere than on a north wall at first? 
Why is it better first to make a simple map with the paper on the 
floor? 

3. What field trips or excursions have you taken with your 
pupils? Did you prepare for the trip by previous discussion? Did 
you discuss the trip after your return? 

4. To what extent do you correlate geography with language? 
Reading? History? Agriculture? Do your pupils know their 
home geography well? 

5. Make a careful study of the "minimum requirements" and the 
recommendations for elimination, and compare with the material 
you are teaching. Do your pupils seem to use their imagination and 
make real the places and peoples studied? 

REFERENCES 

Dodge and Kirchwey, Teaching Geography in Elementary Schools. 
Rand, McNally Co., Chicago. 

McMurry, Special Method in Geography. Macmillan Co., New 
York. 

Sutherland, The Teaching of Geography. O. Scott Co., Chicago. 

Redway, The New Basis of Geography. Macmillan Co., New 
York. 

The Geographic Magazine. National Geographic Society, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 



CHAPTER XV 



HISTORY 



THE study of history is especially important in a na- 
tion like ours, which depends upon the intelligence of 
its citizens for government and institutions. Because Amer- 
ica is young among nations it lacks the wealth of traditions 
and historic personages possessed by older countries. Yet 
our history, short though it is, is a record of marvelous 
achievement probably never before matched in historical 
records. 

The Aim — What We Seek Through the Study of History 

Every child is at first provincial in his sympathies and 
knowledge. His earliest experiences are bounded by his 
family relations. Then he comes in contact with a small 
community group. Later, with the school and the broader 
community. But all this is still too narrow a field of social 
stimuli. 

The child needs to awaken to people and times beyond 
the here and the now. He needs to have his imagination 
fired and his ambition stirred by heroic action and worthy 
deeds of men and women far removed in time and place. He 
needs to feel the debt he owes to generations long since dead, 
for their gifts to him. He needs to realize what country, 
freedom and security have cost. He needs to awaken to 
the fact that he is kin to those outside the range of his im- 
mediate knowledge or acquaintance; that he is part of a 

260 



HISTORY 261 

great onward moving procession of human beings, each 
linked to all the others by unbreakable bonds. — This is all 
to say that the child needs to study history. The study 
of history should yield certain knowledge, attitudes and 
skills which we shall next discuss. 

Knowledge to be sought. — Of course no person can 
have a complete knowledge of all history, for it includes a 
record of too great magnitude. Neither are all the facts 
of history worth knowing, or necessary to know for our 
present enlightenment and guidance. Especially is it true 
that not all history is suitable for children to know. Much 
of it is beyond their grasp and not adapted to their minds' 
needs. Our problem is therefore one of selection in order 
that we may find the most fruitful material. Our teaching 
of history should supply knowledge that will lead to the 
following results : 

1. Kindle the imagination and enlighten the understand- 
ing that they may reveal the significance and value of men, 
events and achievements of other times and places. 

2. Give such a perspective and sense of values as will 
save from narrow provincialism and a self -centered dog- 
matism. 

3. Enable one to interpret present-day social conditions 
and problems in the light of the lessons afforded by past 
social experience. 

4. Render one intelligent in reading books, papers or 
magazines, and in sharing conversations or listening to pub- 
lic addresses which contain historical references. 

5. Supply a fund of interesting information to serve as 
a basis for thought, memory or appreciation, and to guide 
and inspire in forming ideals or making plans for personal 
achievement. 

Attitudes to be developed. — The attitudes developed 



262 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

through the study of history are an important part of the 
aim. These should include the following : 

1. Respect, reverence and appreciation for the men and 
women of the past who have made present-day civilization 
possible; a broadened and deepened human interest; an 
appreciation of the opportunities afforded to those who live 
in the present. 

2. A spirit of pride in country and flag, and an ambition 
to play a worthy part as a citizen — a deep-seated, intelli- 
gent, active patriotism. 

3. Personal ideals shaped and dominated by the great 
qualities of life and character revealed in worthy historic 
characters — moral standards. 

4. Hatred of tyranny and oppression, and an intolerance 
of social injustice. 

5. An interest in and love for historical reading, and 
for the study of all that concerns social welfare in the pres- 
ent day. That instruction in history has been a failure 
which has not developed a taste for reading history, current 
events, and other material dealing with human affairs. 

Skills to be trained.- — The study of history should lead 
to certain definite skills. Among these are : 

1. Power to judge public men both as to character and 
ability, thus enabling one intelligently to determine his alle- 
giance to leaders or those seeking political office. 

2. Ability to understand and judge public events and 
policies, and thereby know on what side to throw his in- 
fluence or give his vote. 

3. Ability to take up, with a background of intelligence, 
any office of public trust and meet its problems in the light 
of past experience as revealed in history. 

4. Ability to use historical allusions or illustrations ac- 
curately and effectively in conversation, writing or public 
address. 



HISTORY 26o 



Subject-Matter of History—What to Teach 

The field of historical material is almost infinitely rich, 
and therefore requires careful selection that it may meet 
the aims desired for its study. In general it must be said 
that much of the material offered in the grades of many 
schools has in the past been too formal and technical. It has 
been too generally a record of dry facts, and lists of relatively 
unimportant dates and events. It has been too largely a skele- 
tonized account of the political and military phases of his- 
tory, and too little a description of the social and industrial 
development of the people. It has given a mass of minute 
detail concerning matters often quite outside the child's 
interest, grasp or experience, and has omitted in large meas- 
ure the more intimate and vital material that deals with the 
common life. When our children have had a right to ex- 
pect living bread capable of stimulating interest and feeding 
the imagination, we have not infrequently offered them the 
dead stones that dulled the edge of appetite and failed to 
nourish the mind. 

What, then, shall we teach ? This is not the place to out- 
line a complete course in history, but the suggestions which 
follow will indicate the point of view for selecting the ma- 
terial. 

First- and second-grade material. — Formal study of 
history has no place in the earlier grades. History will not 
have a separate place on the program earlier than the fifth 
grade, and in some cases not before the seventh grade. In 
the first two grades whatever history is taught will be pre- 
sented in oral story form in connection with the work in 
reading and language. This material most naturally grows 
out of the celebration of special days, such as: 



264 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Thanksgiving Christmas 

Washington's Birthday Lincoln's Birthday 

Memorial Day Flag Day 

Why the day is observed and how it should be observed 
will, of course, come up in connection with preparing for 
its celebration. 

Other suitable material, especially for the second grade, 
is found in stories of pioneers, including those of local fame ; 
stories of the Pilgrims and other early settlers ; well-known 
national heroes ; Bible stories ; Indian stories. There should 
at this stage be no attempt to emphasize the wider historical 
significance of the characters, but only to broaden the child's 
interest and increase his knowledge of people. 

Many schools give a large proportion of the story time 
to Indian stories, presumably because it is supposed that 
the child will best comprehend simple primitive life. There 
is reason to doubt, however, whether the child of to-day is 
able to understand primitive Indian life and customs as 
well as the life and customs of more civilized peoples. The 
further fact that the Indians are an unimportant and de- 
cadent race would suggest that their stories should not be 
given more than their fair share of attention. 

Pictures should from the first form an important phase 
of history material. The eye is more easily impressed than 
the verbal memory. The picture also serves to give reality 
and significance to the story of a life or an event, and helps 
the imagination vivify and realize the facts described. 

Third- and fourth-grade material. — The material for 
these grades is to be determined in part by the child's in- 
terest and grasp, and in part by the best correlations with 
literature and language. Most schools emphasize Hebrew, 
Greek, Roman, Norse and English history material more 
than American at this stage. The reading material abounds 



HISTORY 265 

in stories and myths dealing with the national heroes of 
these peoples. The child is ready to respond with keen 
enjoyment and appreciation to these historical tales. They 
also open up to him a new world for his imagination and 
broaden his knowledge of human nature. Yet in dealing 
with other times our own national and local characters must 
not be neglected. 

Text-books should not be required for these grades. Yet 
a considerable number of schools successfully use some sim- 
ple text of historical stories in the fourth grade as a part 
of the reading material. The following topics suggest the 
type of material adapted to third and fourth grades : 

Hebrew stories, as of Joseph, Moses, David. 

Greek stories and myths, as of Ulysses, Alexander, the 
Greek gods. 

Roman stories and myths, as of Horatius, Cincinnatus. 

Stories of the Middle Ages, Canute, Alfred, Bruce, Har- 
round. 

Stories from English history. 

Great Americans, explorers, statesmen, inventors, writers. 

National holidays and their significance. 

Indians and pioneer life. 

State and local biography and history. 

In the use of all this material the main objective is to 
cultivate the historical sense, stimulate the imagination and 
captivate interest, rather than to present any connected ac- 
count of nations or events. The time for a consecutive 
view of history has not yet arrived, and to attempt it would 
defeat the whole purpose of history teaching at this stage. 
Pictures should be freely used to supplement the stories and 
biographies. 

Fifth- and sixth-grade material. — By the time the child 
has reached the fifth grade he should have acquired con- 
siderable historical knowledge, chiefly of the biographical 



266 



CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 



type. He should now be ready for a somewhat more defi- 
nitely organized view of history. The prevailing tendency at 
present is to devote the fifth year mostly to American his- 
tory and biography, and the sixth year either to American 
or to a combination of American and English history. 

There are now available a number of reasonably satis- 
factory texts to put into the hands of the pupils. In many 
schools these books are made a part of the reading, litera- 
ture and language course. However the work is arranged, 
the historical meaning of the material should now be 
stressed, and the child's feeling for history gradually de- 
veloped. Yet care must be used not to present problems 
beyond the child's grasp. The following is typical material 
from American history suited to these grades : 



Story of Lief the Lucky 
Explorations of Columbus 
Drake, Raleigh, Cortez, De 

Soto 
John Smith and Pocahontas 
How the first settlers lived 
Their relations with the In- 
dians 
Puritan days and ways 
King Philip, Tecumseh, 

Pontiac 
Peter Stuyvesant and the 

Dutch 
William Penn and the Quak- 
ers 
Oglethorpe and the South 
Heroes of the Revolution 
Great events of the Revolu- 
tion 
What the Revolution settled 
Starting the new republic 
Daniel Boone and the West 



JefTerson and the Louisiana 

Purchase 
Lewis and Clark expedition 
Fulton and the steamboat 
The first railroad 
The invention of the tele- 
graph 
Webster, Clay, Calhoun 
Lincoln anal the Civil War 
Grant, Lee 

McCormick and the reaper 
Whitney and the cotton gin 
Howe and the sewing ma- 
chine 
Bell and the telephone 
Longfellow, Whittier, Bry- 
ant 
Emerson, Hawthorne, Irving 
Building of the West 
Early history of home state 
Local community history 



HISTORY 267 

In presenting English history no attempt should be made 
at this time to teach the consecutive political history of the 
nation, but only such personages and events as are out- 
standing in their importance. Greater stress will naturally 
be placed on such phases of English history as are most 
closely related to American history. Such material is best 
correlated with the points in American history which were 
influenced. Again let it be urged that pictures be freely 
drawn upon to give life and reality to the descriptive ma- 
terial. 

Seventh- and eighth-grade material. — If the child has 
been well brought up to this stage he ought now to be ready 
for a somewhat serious study of the history of his country 
and his native state. This does not mean that the material 
must be dry and technical. The time has not yet arrived 
for a minute study of political and military affairs. The 
subject-matter should deal with the broader problems and 
movements of history, with social and industrial progress, 
and with great and inspiring characters of national renown. 

The subject of history, which up to the seventh grade has 
been correlated with literature and language study, should 
now have a separate place on the program. The two re- 
maining years of the elementary school are none too much 
time for national history, state history and civics. 

Discovery and exploration of America. In the earlier 
grades the child has had only biographical sketches and dis- 
connected stories of this period. He should now pursue a 
connected account of the major situations and events which 
gave the world a new continent. The following are the more 
important topics for this period: 

Geographical knowledge prior to Columbus. 
Story of "Harold the Fair" and "Eric the Red." 
Trade demands for a western route to India. 



268 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Review story of Columbus and the Cabots. 
Story of Americus Vespucius, Balboa, Magellan. 
The Spanish explorers. 
The French explorers. 
The English explorers. 
The Dutch explorers. 

The period of settlement. A detailed study of coloniza- 
tion should be restricted to the following four colonies, 
which represented all the distinct types: 

Virginia (The South) New York (The Dutch) 

Massachusetts (The Pur- Pennsylvania (The Quak- 

itans) ers) 

A brief account should be given of the Indian troubles met 
by the colonists. 

The period of revolution. The material should be selected 
rather to give an understanding of the causes and issues in- 
volved than to trace minutely the military operations. Em- 
phasis should be given to such topics as these that follow: 

American desire for representation in Parliament. 

Trouble over taxation. 

The struggle for rights. 

The Continental Congresses. 

Battle of Bunker Hill. 

The Declaration of Independence. 

The struggle for liberty. 

Development of the Constitution. Under this topic the 
aim should not be to make any technical study of the the- 
ories proposed and the controversies waged concerning the 
Constitution. The purpose is rather to show how America, 
separated from England, must form a government for her- 
self. Emphasize the ideal of democracy. Stress leading 



HISTORY 269 

personages connected with it, Give a general idea of the 
plan of government which it provided. Take stock of the 
resources, population, territory and problems of the new 
nation. 

Growth of the nation. Stress such topics as the following : 

Early laws passed by Congress. 

Problem of the public debt. 

Outline of the earlier administrations. 

Jefferson and the Louisiana Purchase. 

The Monroe Doctrine. 

Opening up the Northwest Territory. 

Industrial development up to Civil War. 

Growth of important cities. 

Opening up of railroads. 

Development of agriculture and manufactures. 

Building of the West. 

Slavery, secession and Civil War. Select such material 
as will show cause and effect running through the slavery 
and states' rights questions, and on to secession and war. 

Origin and growth of slavery in America. 

Drifting apart of North and South. 

Various slave laws and troubles. 

Struggle for power in Congress. 

The Mexican War. 

Election of Lincoln. 

The beginning of secession. 

Firing on Fort Sumter, beginning of war. 

The call for troops. 

Comparison of strength of North and South. 

General plan of war. 

Leading generals. 

Chief battles and turning point. 

The Emancipation Proclamation. 

Surrender of Lee. 

Death of Lincoln. 



270 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

The reconstruction period. Here again stress the dra- 
matic problem involved and the movement of major events 
rather than technical politics : 

Lincoln's plan for receiving the South back. 

Trouble with Johnson ; impeachment. 

Amendments to the Constitution. 

Conditions in the South; carpetbaggers; Ku Klux Klan. 

Southern representation in Congress. 

Later national growth and development. 

Current history. Constant use should be made of papers, 
magazines and books to study contemporaneous personages 
and current events. One of the chief purposes of the study 
of history is to develop the habit of keeping in touch with 
present-day life. This phase of the work should therefore 
have explicit attention and emphasis. 

State and local history. Every state and community has 
its own local history which should become a part of the 
education of all its citizens. Many states now have excel- 
lent texts of local history. Others distribute historical 
pamphlets and similar material through some state histor- 
ical society or the office of the state superintendent. The 
ingenious teacher will have no difficulty in finding an abun- 
dance of interesting matter for such work. 

What to omit. — -Many of our text-books in history 
have been too detailed and technical in certain phases of 
the matter offered the child. Unimportant dates and events 
have been required, and details of political policies and 
events given which are beyond the child's grasp and not 
highly important, in themselves. An excess of military his- 
tory has been insisted upon, with minute accounts of cam- 
paigns and battles. The result has been a large amount of 
dry and uninteresting matter. 

Much of this material should be eliminated in favor of 



HISTORY 271 

vital matter that deals more directly with social, economic 
and industrial history. The following recommendations for 
omission are in accord with action recently taken by the 
Minnesota and Iowa state teachers' associations: 

Wars. Limit the study of wars to their remote and im- 
mediate causes; their general geography; resources and 
problems of nations involved; general plan of military op- 
erations; a few critical battles; important leaders; what 
the war settled, and the after effects; cost in men and 
treasure. This plan will reduce the war phase of history 
study by more than half. 

Eliminate the detailed study of battles except: Battle 
of Quebec ; Lexington and Concord ; Bunker Hill ; Saratoga ; 
Yorktown; Lake Erie; Merrimac and Monitor; Gettys- 
burg; Vicksburg; Manila. 

Dates. Limit the memorizing of dates to events of central 
importance like the following: 1492, discovery of Amer- 
ica; 1607, settlement of Jamestown; 1619, slavery intro- 
duced; 1620, Pilgrims land at Plymouth; 1643, confedera- 
tion of colonies ; 1775, Lexington, Concord and Bunker 
Hill; 1776, Declaration of Independence; 1781, Cornwallis 
surrenders; 1789, first Congress; 1793, Whitney's cotton 
gin; 1803, Louisiana Purchase; 1807, Fulton's steamboat; 
1812, war with England; 1820, Missouri Compromise; 1823, 
Monroe Doctrine; 1826, first railroad; 1844, first telegraph; 
1846, sewing-machine invented; 1845, first reaper; 1846-48, 
Mexican War; 1861, secession and Civil War; 1863, Eman- 
cipation Proclamation, Gettysburg, Vicksburg; 1866, Atlan- 
tic cable; 1876, first telephone; 1878, electric light invented; 
1898, war with Spain; 1903, first wireless across Atlantic; 
1914, world war in Europe. 

Other omissions. Detailed provisions of various tariff 
acts (but the meaning of tariff should be understood) ; de- 
tails of political campaigns except Jefferson's, Jackson's, 



272 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Lincoln's and any current campaign in progress; critical 
study of political party principles (but give broad distinc- 
tions between chief rival parties) ; financial panics except 
those of 1837, 1873, 1893. 

Organisation and Presentation 

The great problem in the presentation of history is to 
make it live, to cause the child to recreate through his imag- 
ination the splendid drama of human action which history 
describes. Instead of a set of unreal (or at least unrealized) 
facts of persons or dates, we are to bring the living, mov- 
ing, aspiring, sacrificing, achieving men and women of past 
and present into being and reveal them engaged in the build- 
ing of civilization. If the history we teach does not thrill 
the imagination, stir the blood and kindle ideals and am- 
bitions there is something wrong. For right material skil- 
fully presented will do this very thing with normal boys 
and girls. 

Creating an atmosphere of reality. — The first requisite 
of good history teaching, therefore, is that it shall create 
an atmosphere of reality. This can be -done in part by 
direct appeal to the imagination of our pupils. Pictures 
are also of great service in this connection. Free and spon- 
taneous discussion by the pupils is a clarifying factor. The 
conversation may turn on the motives back of a certain line 
of action; as why Washington did this or Lincoln that; 
what would have happened if some other action had been 
taken ; how Grant felt and how Lee felt at Lee's surrender ; 
Fulton in his workshop busy on parts for his steamboat; 
a passenger on the first railway train, etc. 

Dramatizing. — Wherever possible, especially with 
younger pupils, history should be put into action. It will 
have a reality and also a significance in this way which 



HISTORY 273 

can not be secured from mere reciting. Scores of situations 
and events in history easily lend themselves to such treat- 
ment. Nor should the merely sensational or striking be 
selected for dramatizing. For example, Washington and a 
group of his soldiers at Valley Forge is a situation of much 
more value than Washington with his hatchet. 

The Boston tea party ; the Continental Congress ; signing 
of the Declaration of Independence ; Washington's farewell 
address; Lincoln's Gettysburg address; signing the Eman- 
cipation Proclamation; an Indian attack — all these are but 
a bare suggestion of the opportunities for dramatization 
open to the ingenious teacher. For special days and occa- 
sions, historical events, anniversaries or periods may be pre- 
sented in the form of a pageant, the whole school (and 
perhaps many of the community) taking part. This is but 
dramatization on a larger scale. 

Training to think. — Whatever the method or device 
employed, we ; must never forget that the study of history 
should train pupils to think. Even very early in the course 
the idea should be planted that things do not just happen 
in history. All events are preceded by their causes, and 
every cause is sooner or later followed by its effect. It is 
not, of course, meant that profound reasoning on these re- 
lations should be expected, but it is a relatively simple mat- 
ter to show how the Civil War was for a century growing 
out of the slavery question and the differences in industrial 
and political views north and south. And so with many 
other causes and their effects. The point of view should 
be clearly developed that history is an unbroken succession 
of acts and events, each one caused by acts and events in 
the past, and in turn leading to other acts and events in 
the future. 

This view of history will serve to link the present to the 
past and cause the child to realize the debt he owes to those 



'274 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

who have built for him the wonderful civilization which 
he enjoys. It will also help him realize that this debt should 
be paid by loyalty to his generation and those that are to 
follow. 

Correlations of history.— -History is rich in its cor- 
relations. Literature has seized upon historical events and 
leaders as themes and immortalized them in poetic or prose 
masterpieces. Furthermore, every great piece of literature, 
no matter what its theme, breathes something of the spirit 
of its times, and can not be successfully studied without 
a knowledge of the social or historical situation out of which 
it grew. 

The geography and resources of a country are responsi- 
ble in no small degree for its history. Hence history and 
geography naturally correlate, and should be taught, at least 
after the fourth or fifth grade, in close conjunction with 
each other. 

The use of supplemental material. — While children 
should have a good text-book as a basis for their work in 
at least the seventh and eighth grades, there is also need 
of much supplemental material. Special chapters in other 
texts, cyclopedias, historical pamphlets, , magazine articles, 
newspapers and historical novels are some of the sources 
available. Special assignments should be made to these 
sources and reports and discussions given before the class. 

A caution should, however, be observed at this point. 
The class never ought to be required to listen to a report 
that does not contain valuable material or to one that is 
poorly organized or presented. The teacher will need to 
work with pupils on the reports in order to insure a high 
standard. Such work may well correlate with language 
study and receive credit in the language class. The constant 
use of supplemental material will broaden the child's con- 



HISTORY 275 

cept of history, and tend to develop the habit of historical 
reading. 

Topical reviews. — After a general view of American 
history is obtained an excellent method for review is to 
take certain important topics and trace their development 
from their beginning up to the present Suppose, for ex- 
ample, we have chosen for one of our topics, The develop- 
ment of transportation and communication. The following 
points might be taken up under it, thus tracing the evolution 
of the means of transportation and communication i 1 

The "Pony Express," the trail, the packhorse. 
Building of national highways; the buckboard; the car- 
riage. 

River and ocean steamboats ; new trade routes. 

Early railroads ; linking East to West. 

Telegraph and cable ; Atlantic cable ; Pacific cable. 

The daily paper ; magazines. 

The telephone. 

Wireless telegraphy and telephony. 

Panama Canal. 

The automobile. 

Flying machines. * 

Many other topics suitable for such treatment will occur to 
the teacher. Among them are : 

The expansion of territory. 

Wars in which the United States has been engaged. 

The development of public education. 

The movement westward. 

Slavery. 

Relations with other countries. 

In assigning these topics the teacher should work out with 
the class the sub-points belonging under each and then show 

1 Cf . Indiana, Course of Study, 1916, page 185. 



276 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

the class how to collect and organize the material studied. 
Note-books can be used to excellent advantage in this type 
of study. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. After considering carefully the knowledge, attitudes and skills 
suggested as the aim in teaching history, determine whether others 
should be added. Do you attempt the definite attainment of such 
aims? 

2. What methods do you employ to connect the history of the 
present with that of the past? What journals of current events do 
you use in your work? Are your pupils developing the habit of 
reading historical books and articles ? 

3. Make a list of the great Americans the story of whose life 
you think a pupil finishing the fifth or sixth grade ought to be able 
to tell or write. Of important men or women of other countries. 
Of these and your own state. Can your own pupils do this? Do 
they know the history of their state ? 

4. To what extent have you used dramatization as a help in his- 
tory teaching? What particular correlations do you make between 
history and literature? History and geography? Do you and your 
pupils enjoy the history hour? 

5. Study carefully the recommendations for elimination, and 
compare with the material offered in your history text. Do you find 
too great a proportion of wars and politics? If so, consider how to 
supplement so as to give more of the social, economic and industrial 
history. 

REFERENCES 

MacMurry, Special Method in History. Macmillan Co., New 
York. 

Allen, The Place of History in Education. D. Appleton & Co., 
New York. 

Bourne, The Teaching of History and Civics. Longmans, New 
York. 

Report of Committee of Five, The Study of History in Schools. 
Macmillan Co., New York. 



CHAPTER XVI 



CIVICS 



THE education of every American child should include 
instruction in the fundamentals of civic rights and 
duties. Because of the nature of our government and the 
character of our national ideals the success and perpetuity 
of our nation depend on an intelligent and loyal citizenship. 
True, the child will receive no small amount of civic train- 
ing from his contacts outside the school, from home, com- 
munity and the wider social relations. But he also needs 
certain direct, organized and specific training that he will 
in all probability lack if the school does not supply it. 

An undoubted source of weakness in our national charac- 
ter is our slight respect as a people for law and authority, 
our lack of consideration for the personal and property 
rights of others, and our all too general indifference to 
many of the finer civic virtues. This weakness our schools 
should help correct. 

The Aim — What to Seek Through Teaching Civics 

First of all a distinction must be made in the elementary 
school between civics and civil government. Civics, as the 
term is used in this discussion, will refer to the common 
relations, rights and duties of people to civic character and 
its expression as they live together in an organized society. 
Civil government will refer to the mechanism and working 
of the government. 

277 



278 ( CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Children, as soon as they have reached the age of ac- 
countability, enter into many civic relations and responsi- 
bilities, and are then ripe for instruction concerning them. 
More than three-fourths of those who enter the schools 
never go beyond the eighth grade, and not more than half 
beyond the fifth grade. It is therefore imperative that cer- 
tain fundamental civic knowledge and ideals be inculcated 
relatively early in the school course. The more complex 
facts of the civil government must naturally be left for later 
in the course. 

Type of civic knowledge required. — Ignorance is the 
soil in which indifference and corruption thrive. The ele- 
mentary school should teach such knowledge as will make 
intelligent, loyal, efficient citizens, ready to recognize the 
rights of others and capable of understanding and partici- 
pating in our representative form of government. The 
knowledge required is such as will touch the individual's 
civic relations to his fellow men, his community, his town, 
his state and his nation. It should be of the sort that the 
common man or woman needs in order to do his or her 
part as a citizen even in ordinary, inconspicuous positions 
in life. 

The information must be such as will enable one to know 
nis civic rights and duties, and be intelligent in public meet- 
ings, in caucuses or at the polls; that will enable him to 
understand public questions and judge public problems and 
policies as outlined in the press or from the platform, and 
thus not be at the mercy of the demagogue. 

This point of view will omit from elementary instruction 
all the more complicated and theoretical aspects of govern- 
ment, such as the study of constitutions, complex legisla- 
tive and judicial procedure, and any other topics whose 
range and complexity are beyond the grasp and experience 
of children. 



civics 279 

Cultivation of civic attitudes and ideals. — The cultiva- 
tion of civic attitudes and ideals is not of less importance 
than the supplying of civic knowledge. Knowledge itself 
is not sufficient for the making of good citizens. There are 
now all too many who have expert knowledge of politics 
and government but who use this knowledge to defeat the 
ends of justice and humanity. Low ideals still lead many 
of our citizens to look upon graft and plunder as the nat- 
ural correlate of office holding. The sale of votes and in- 
fluence is not limited to the ignorant alone. A study of 
civics should teach every American youth that loyal serv- 
ice is the natural and right ideal for all citizens. This 
loyalty should reach not only to service as a soldier in 
defense of the nation, but should also be the common 
attitude and habit of life in times of peace. Public office 
should appeal to men and women as an opportunity to serve 
rather than as a chance to feed at the public crib. Political 
influence and the franchise should be held a sacred trust. 

The school has a difficult task to inculcate such ideals 
while surrounded by contrary examples. And it must be 
admitted that unblushing trickery and political dishonesty 
are far too prevalent, and that this fact is known even to 
the school children of the present day. Though such con- 
ditions render the problem exceedingly hard, yet the ques- 
tion of cultivating right ideals of citizenship must be met 
by the school, else a fatal weakness will exist in our educa- 
tion and in the very foundation of our national life. 

Skills, or practise in citizenship. — Many have thought 
that practical application can not be made by children of 
the study of civics. Such persons point out that the right 
of franchise and office-holding are not obtained until the 
age of twenty-one. This point of view overlooks the fact 
that voting or holding an office is but one of the many du- 
ties of citizenship. Even the school of which the child is 



280 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

a member is itself a miniature society, and each pupil a cit- 
izen therein. In similar manner the life of every child 
touches in various ways the interests and organization of 
the community or the municipality. As these relations 
broaden with increasing age they extend to include the 
state and the nation. There is no lack of opportunity for 
every American child to enter upon the practise of good 
citizenship long before he has obtained the age of voting. 

The great thing in cultivating right attitudes through 
elementary civics is to begin with what is nearest at hand, 
and what most directly touches the interest and life of the 
child in his relations with organized government and with 
general civic responsibility. Civics can, by taking the prob- 
lems which lie close by, be made from the beginning a con- 
crete laboratory study. From these beginnings the subject 
can then broaden until it includes the full set of relations by 
which the individual fits into his place as a citizen of the 
state, the nation and the world. 

Subject-Matter of Civics — What to Teach 

The first introduction to civics should come very early in 
the grades. This does not, of course, mean that the children 
will at first have a text-book or that a separate place will 
be given on the program. The instruction will occur in 
connection with the stories of the language lesson, in the 
reading lessons, in the teaching of biographies, in the study 
of history, and in connection with school, community, mu- 
nicipal or other local public projects of common civic in- 
terest. 

Practical sources of material. — At this stage the aim 
is not to teach the technical organization or workings of 
governmental machinery. It is to cultivate civic ideals, 
develop right civic attitudes, lay the foundations of civic 



civics 281 

loyalty and begin the development of the concept of civic 
duty and responsibility. The sense of common civic prob- 
lems and of community welfare may be well grounded at 
this time. Realization of the need of universal obedience 
to law may easily arise out of current examples of law- 
breaking and the harm that follows. 

The relations of the school furnish an excellent opportu- 
nity for much concrete civic instruction. Universal taxa- 
tion for education, compulsory education laws, free text- 
books and supplies, the election of the school board and 
their authority, the voting of bonds for a new building, 
the obligation of pupils to make good use of opportunities 
provided at such cost and trouble — all these and many other 
common topics easily supply good starting points for in- 
struction. For example, one boy who had wilfully defaced 
a schoolhouse wall was led to see that he had destroyed 
property which his father's and his neighbors' taxes had 
paid for and in which every person in the district had an 
interest. He at once volunteered to make good the damage 
out of his own savings. What better lesson could be had in 
civic honesty? 

Topics growing out of immediate civic relations. — 
From the point of view taken, it is evident that the topics 
that should early be stressed will vary in different com- 
munities and schools. The principle, however, will be the 
same for all : to seize upon the actual vital problems or move- 
ments of civic import such as are suitable for the child's 
grasp and interest, and make them the starting point for 
definite organized instruction in civic ideals and action. All 
the better if the matters taken up are such as will permit 
the pupils themselves to have a real and active part in them. 
The following topics will serve as illustrations of this prin- 
ciple. The work will not require a text-book: 

Community interests in which young citizens can help. 



282 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

— 1. Helping keep streets, alleys, roads and parks free from 
rubbish ; avoiding trampling the grass in public places ; de- 
fending public buildings, monuments, etc., from vandalism. 

2. Good conduct on the street and in public places ; cour- 
tesy to strangers and elders. 

3. Obedience to quarantines ; other laws for public hy- 
giene, as spitting, common drinking cup, towels, etc. 

4. A spirit of pride in the community and all its interests ; 
a "booster" for all good projects. 

Cooperation for "safety first" idea. — 1. Reasons why 
whole community is interested in personal safety; cost of 
accidents; care of dependents, etc. 

2. Risks by running or driving in front of railway trains ; 
jumping freight trains or moving street-cars. 

3. Dodging automobiles in street play; carelessness in 
crossing the crowded street; foolish speeding. 

4. Caution around water ; relation of caution and courage. 

5. Suggestions for other safety first ideas. 

Laws that all should know and obey. — 1. Driving, 
speed and roadway rights. 

2. Pure food, marketing damaged fruit, eggs, etc. 

3. Posting signs on trees, telephone poles, etc. 

4. Mowing weeds along property. 

5. Keeping walks clear of snow. 

6. Defacement of public buildings, etc. 

7. Fish and game laws. 

8. Quarantine laws. 

9. Selling cigarettes or tobacco to minors. 

10. Selling liquor. 

11. School laws that affect pupils. 

12. Concerning payment of taxes. 

13. Classification and weights of mail packages. 

14. Other laws of immediate interest and importance. 
The citizen's relation to public health. — 1. How health 



civics 283 

depends on community cooperation; wrong of attending 
school when threatened with contagious disease. 

2. Importance of pure food and water supply; selling 
impure milk, tainted eggs, spoiled meat, etc.; pure food 
laws. 

3. Tuberculosis and spitting; unrestrained coughing and 
sneezing ; elimination of refuse and reducing flies. 

4. The citizen's obligation to keep well; cost of sick- 
ness; keeping health conditions good in home and school; 
the medical quack and his fake remedies. 

5. Local problems of community hygiene which require 
attention. 

What the government does for its citizens. — 1. The 
protection of life and property ; police force and other peace 
officers; the army; the navy. 

2. Supplying opportunities for education; purpose; who 
pays the bills; how much; our response. 

3. Guaranteeing liberty and opportunity ; less favored na- 
tions; our obligations. 

4. Generous treatment of poor and unfortunate ; institu- 
tions, parks, buildings, etc., for all. 

5. Public service ; money system ; postal system ; building 
and caring for public highways ; local examples of such pub- 
lic service. 

What citizens should do in return. — 1. All favors re- 
ceived put us in debt; payment in gratitude and service. 

2. Honesty in all public trusts ; cheerful payment of taxes 
without evasion or grumbling; engaging in useful occupa- 
tion, even if wealthy. 

3. Obedience to law ; helping see that others obey ; strik- 
ing at graft and civic dishonesty; voting honestly; honest 
service if elected to office. 

4. Loyalty in thought, word, deed; taking up arms if 
necessary for country. 



284 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

5. Think of still other obligations of citizens. 

Good and bad citizens. — 1. Why class each of the fol- 
lowing as a good citizen: Washington, Lincoln, Grant, 
Frances Willard, Horace Mann; Edison; select other good 
citizens, some of them local people, and tell why you choose 
them. 

2. Why is each of the following a bad citizen : the man 
who does not vote ; one who sells his vote ; the farmer who 
does not cut his weeds along the roadway ; one who violates 
quarantine ; the boy who throws paper on the street ; the tax 
dodger; the boy or girl who unnecessarily drops out of 
school; the family which permits a fly-breeding privy or 
manure pile? 

Such topics as those above should, of course, wherever 
possible, be given a concrete and local application and not 
be taught as a mere theory. Examples will not be lacking 
for abundant illustrations and the children themselves 
should in most cases be given an opportunity to present il- 
lustrations or make applications. In many cases the topics 
may naturally arise from some immediate, pressing civic 
question in the community. This will make the lesson 
doubly valuable and effective. But lessons on civic topics 
such as the above should have a definite place in all elemen- 
tary school instruction. 

Text-book work. — By the time the child has reached 
the eighth grade (possibly even by the seventh grade) a 
text-book should be used for half a year of work. The 
general aim will be the same as in the oral work — to give 
the pupil the civic knowledge, attitudes and skill most nearly 
related to the problems he will confront as a citizen. Here 
as in the oral work the instruction should begin with the 
interests and problems nearest at hand ; it should then lead 
from these on out to the affairs of the state and nation. 

In the earlier grades the child is not taught the details 



civics 285 

of the organization and workings of civil government. Be- 
fore completing the common school, however, the pupil 
should understand the purpose of government and know 
the general methods of its operation in its various depart- 
ments. 

The emphasis in the later work may center about such 
topics as follow. The pupils should have a text-book, pro- 
viding one of the right type is available : 

1. Why we need a government (not theoretical). 

2. The units of government. 

3. Points illustrating our daily contact with civil govern- 
ment. 

4. The government of a school district. 

5. The government of a town or city. 

6. The government of a township. 

7. The government of a county. 

8. The government of a state. 

9. The government of the nation. 

10. Current civic problems and movements for study. 
These may include : the primary system of nomination ; the 
initiative and referendum ; the recall ; woman suffrage ; the 
short ballot ; the Australian ballot system ; prohibition ; prob- 
lems growing out of our foreign relations ; military training 
and preparedness ; the commission form of government for 
state or city; civil service versus the spoils system; doing 
away with special privilege and graft from politics; good 
drainage laws; laws for protection of land under tenancy 
system. 

Elimination of obsolete and useless material. — The fol- 
lowing material has no place in the course in civics for the 
elementary school: 

1. The constitution of the United States. 

2. The constitution of the state. 

3. Detailed analysis of method of electing president. 



286 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

4. Detailed analysis of the court system and its procedure. 

5. Theoretical explanation of the division of powers. 

6. Theory of bicameral legislation. 

7. Technical details of how laws are made. 

8. Names of unimportant state offices, with terms, sal- 
aries, etc. 

9. All abstract political theory that has no direct bearing 
on good citizenship. 

Organisation and Presentation of Material 

The study of civics, as already suggested, should have 
its beginning in the common relations and duties of children 
with reference to school, community and home situations. 
The following account of one teacher's method of teaching 
civics in a small Iowa town contains a good suggestion : 

Applied civic instruction. — With the help of the teacher 
the pupils were organized into a "Town Civic League," 
with a president and a secretary. The purpose of the 
League was to keep the streets and alleys clean and beautify 
the town. The League was divided into sections according to 
the part of the town in which the pupils lived. Each sec- 
tion competed with the others in showing the best results. 
The work of cleaning and beautifying was done evenings 
and Saturdays. On Friday afternoon the League held a 
meeting at the school. The president presided. Reports 
were made by the various sections and discussed. Further 
plans were laid and projects mapped out. The help of the 
town officers was sought on several hard problems and 
cheerfully rendered. 

As a result of the work the town was made a model of 
neatness, community pride was increased, the pupils devel- 
oped a civic spirit, and they learned much in the meetings 



civics 287 

and discussions of their League. They also developed an 
enthusiasm for the study of civics and for the practise of 
good citizenship. 

Teaching civics at Gary. — Probably the most interest- 
ing attempt at connecting school work with the daily life 
which is now going on in this country is at Gary, Indiana, 
under the direction of Superintendent Wirt. Doctor Dewey 
thus describes their method of teaching civics i 1 

"Gary schools do not teach civics out of a text-book. 
Pupils learn civics by helping to take care of their own 
school building, by making the rules for their own conduct 
in the halls and on the playgrounds, by going into the pub- 
lic library, and by listening to the stories of what Gary is 
doing as told by the people who are doing it. They learn 
by a mock campaign, with parties, primaries, booths and bal- 
lots for the election of their own student council. Pupils 
who have made the furniture and the cement walks with 
their own hands, and who know how much it cost, are slow 
to destroy walks or furniture, nor are they going to be very 
easily fooled as to the value they get in service and improve- 
ments when they themselves become taxpayers. The health 
campaigns, the application work which takes them to the 
social agencies of the city, the auditorium periods when they 
learn more about their city, all give civic lessons that make 
their own appeal. The children can see the things with 
their own eyes ; they are learning citizenship by being good 
citizens." 

Civics taught through life of school. — The school, 
through its organization and social relations, offers excellent 
opportunities for civic lessons. The discipline of the school 
should grow out of the needs and interests of the group in- 
stead of the arbitrary demands of the teacher. There is 
no better place than the school to teach that one person's 



1 Schools of To-Morrow, page 199. 



288 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

liberties must end where another's rights begin. Right con- 
duct must obtain because the common good demands it. 
Property must not be destroyed, because it belongs to all. 
Lying, cheating or poor sportsmanship can not be tolerated, 
because they affect the good name and welfare of the whole 
school. Idleness is immoral because it wastes opportunities 
which society pays for and puts at the disposal of the pupil. 
— These and a hundred other points of contact in the school 
are typical of the wider life outside and supply the concrete 
situations out of which instruction should spring. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Get the distinction between civics and civil government in 
mind and then answer the following questions : When and to what 
extent are you teaching civics in your school? Civil government? 
Some elementary texts deal too much with technical facts of govern- 
ment and not enough with civic affairs. How is your text on this 
point? 

2. Is your school generally law-observing with reference to 
school and other regulations? Can good civic instruction be given 
in an atmosphere of lawlessness ? Are the municipal and other laws 
well obeyed in your community? Do you find that the spirit of a 
community is likely to carry over into the school? 

3. Have your pupils a feeling of pride in tHeir school? In their 
town or community? Is this necessary to a good civic attitude? Is 
there a tendency to injure or destroy public property about the 
school or community? If so, how can such a spirit be remedied? 

4. Are your pupils honest ? Is there a tendency to cheat in exam- 
inations? Do you think that school morals are likely to carry over 
into life outside the school? What means do you take to create a 
spirit of squareness and self-control in the school? Are your pupils 
developing character? 

5. In your teaching of civics do you begin with the near-at-hand ? 
Do your pupils know the local office holders and their duties? The 
chief state and national officials ? Are they interested in public ques- 
tions, local and national? Does your instruction seek constantly to 
broaden this interest? Do you have your pupils engaged in any civic 
activities? 



civics 289 



REFERENCES 

Bourne, The Teaching of History and Civics. Longmans, New 
York. 

Allen, Civics and Health. Ginn & Co., Chicago. 

U. S. Bureau of Education, The Teaching of Community Civics. 
Washington, D. C. 

U. S. Bureau of Education, Civic Education in Elementary 
Schools as Illustrated in Indianapolis. Washington, D. C. 

Lapp and Mote, Learning to Earn. Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indi- 
anapolis. 

Dewey, The Schools of To-morrow. E. P. Dutton & Co., New 
York. 



CHAPTER XVII 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 



^ROBABLY no other branch in the elementary school 
so often fails to realize its true part in the education 
of the child as physiology and hygiene. This is not because 
the subject is more difficult or has been worse taught than 
other branches, but because the wonderful opportunities it 
affords and its vital importance to the individual have not 
been fully realized in our schools. 

The Aim — Results to Be Accomplished 

What, then, should the study of physiology and hygiene 
accomplish for the child ? First of all let it be said that the 
aim is not "discipline" or "culture" or the filling of the 
mind with curious but relatively useless information which 
can have no direct bearing on physical living. It is, rather, 
to establish such habits of living as will result in health and 
physical efficiency for the present and the future, and long 
life. 

More specifically, the study of physiology and hygiene 
should be aimed at the following concrete and definite re- 
sults : 

1. More complete growth and better physical develop- 
ment. 

2. Greater freedom from disease and a higher level of 
health. 

3. Higher physical and mental working efficiency. 

290 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 291 

4. Stronger, more perfectly controlled and more sym- 
metrical bodies. 

5. A good system of habits, physical and mental. 

6. Longer and happier lives. 

The efficient teacher will have these ends clearly before 
him and will constantly shape his teaching to their accom- 
plishment. He will continuously put to himself the ques- 
tion : What is the effective outcome of my teaching this sub- 
ject? He will keep asking: What matter shall I select and 
what methods shall I employ better to make my instruction 
take hold? And in how far are my pupils living differently 
and better because of their study of this subject? 

Type of knowledge required. — This point of view re- 
quires that the knowledge taught shall relate itself directly 
to the physical life that the child is here and now living. 
The facts presented are to be chosen, not because of their 
general scientific truth or value, but because they bear di- 
rectly upon the development, the health, the physical effi- 
ciency, the organic welfare of the learner. This is all to say 
that the core of the instruction will be hygiene, and not tech- 
nical physiology and anatomy, as is too often the case. Text- 
books should be selected and courses of study made with 
this fundamental point of view in mind. 

Attitudes to be developed. — The creation of right at- 
titudes toward physical living is not less important than the 
supplying of fruitful knowledge. The child must be led to 
want to know how to live efficiently and avoid sickness and 
disease. He is to be made to feel the value and importance 
of the facts he learns, and to be brought to apply them to his 
daily living. He is to come to understand that the truths 
of hygiene are not merely to be "learned," but to be lived. 
In short, a set of attitudes is to be developed, interests cul- 
tivated and standards established which will lead to good 
habits of physical living. There should arise a keen per- 



292 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

sonal pride in healthy, well proportioned, vigorous bodies; 
in good eyes, ears, teeth, etc. ; in freedom from disease, 
colds, headaches, bad throats or other forms of morbidity. 
Such a respect for the workings of hygienic law should grow 
up as to compel obedience to this law even when it is in 
conflict with appetites, desires or established habits. 

Skills to be trained. — The knowledge learned and the 
attitudes developed through the study of physiology and 
hygiene should, then, lead to greater skill in the art of liv- 
ing. The final test of effectiveness of our instruction will 
be the effect of what the child has learned — not the facts 
he can repeat, but how many of these he is practising in his 
daily life. 

To illustrate, the child should through his study not only 
learn the cause of colds, but become able to detect the be- 
ginnings of a cold in himself and know how to cure it. He 
should become skilled in the daily care of his teeth, hair, 
nails, skin, and in attention to the various bodily functions. 
He should be able to avoid or correct bad bodily postures, 
lack of lung capacity and other such defects. With attention 
centered on health, growth and high efficiency rather than 
on disease or defects, the child should develop the skill and 
control with reference to his body that will make it a per- 
fect machine for the carrying out of life's highest purpose. 

All this is but to say that the knowledge learned and the 
attitudes developed should eventuate in right habits of phys- 
ical living. And habits come only out of practise. Physi- 
ology should of all subjects, therefore, be an applied study. 
Its lessons should daily carry over until they guide in the 
health, efficiency and welfare of the child. Not to accom- 
plish this result is to fail at one of the most fruitful op- 
portunities offered in the whole curriculum. 

In carrying out this point of view care will be exercised 
that the hygienic conditions of the school itself do not ne- 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 293 

gate the instruction. The children must have comfortable 
seats, good lighting, abundant ventilation, freedom from 
dust, etc. Sufficient opportunity will be given for change 
and relaxation so that excessive fatigue may not result. 
The teacher will remember that the most effective influence 
is that of his own example. 

Especially will the skilful teacher undertake to make his 
instruction extend to the life of the home. Some of the 
practical objectives of his instruction will be proper dietaries 
for children, the securing of sufficient sleep under good con- 
ditions, well balanced exercise, regulation of the conditions 
of home study, moderation in amusements, parties, moving- 
picture shows, etc. 

The Subject-Matter of Physiology and Hygiene 

The subject-matter of physiology and hygiene must be 
carefully selected to meet the ends desired. It will be wholly 
futile to set up as our aim the definite, practical and con- 
crete results asked for above and then seek to accomplish 
these results through the highly technical material of anat- 
omy and advanced physiology still found in many elementary 
texts. The final outcome of our teaching will depend on 
the kind of matter we teach. The material must fit the aim. 

Central emphasis on hygiene and practise. — Almost 
from the first day that the child enters school instruction 
should be given in hygiene. This is because the child needs 
then and there to begin the practise of certain hygienic laws, 
both in the school and in the home. At this stage the sub- 
ject will, of course, not require a separate place on the pro- 
gram; the instruction will be given in connection with the 
general work and life of the school, but it will be given. 

The instruction may continue as oral work up to the fifth 
or sixth grade (or even to the seventh grade, where the 



294 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

teacher is well prepared and not overcrowded with work). 
The subject should be given a separate place on the pro- 
gram for at least one year during the course, but in most 
cases not until a text-book is placed in the hands of the 
pupils. The lessons should be correlated constantly with 
language work, nature study and home economics. Such 
topics as the following should receive chief emphasis : 

Growth and development.— 

What makes us grow. (How food turns into living tis- 
sue.) 

Causes that hinder growth and strength. (Improper 
food, disease, etc.) 

Causes of sickness and how to avoid. (Good vitality, 
avoiding contagion, etc.) 

The business of being well and strong. (Chiefly a ques- 
tion of living right.) 

Food and eating. — 

Story of why we need food. (Wearing out of the body.) 
Best foods for children. (Good and bad dietaries.) 
When to eat and when not to eat. (Habit of "piecing," 

etc.) 
How to eat. (Hygiene and manners.) 
What to drink and why. (Milk, instead of coffee and tea ; 

plenty of water.) 
How to make sure about pure water. (Source, steriliz- 
ing.) 
The common drinking cup. (Dangers, ways to avoid.) 
The fly nuisance. (Filthy, dangerous, how to avoid.) 

Good air and breathing. — 

Effects of impure air. (Simple experiments.) 

What are the impurities found in air. (Bacteria, dust, 

odors, etc.) 
Simple story of microbes, good and bad. (Invisible plants, 

how they live.) 
Ventilation, or how to get pure air.. (Windows, outdoor 

exercise and sleeping.) 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 295 

Dust and its control. (Keeping dust out, removing, kinds 

of dusters.) 
Damp basements, drains, etc. (Tests, how to dry.) 
Smoke and other impurities. (Offending chimneys, 

trains, cesspools, etc.) 
Re-breathed air. (Effects.) 
Overheated air. (Effects, right temperature for sitting 

or working.) 
Air that is too dry. (Tests with plants, woodwork and 

furniture, remedy.) 
Learning how to breathe. (Deep and shallow breathing, 

postures.) 
Good and bad bodily postures. (Simple tests, training 

right habits.) 

Exercise, sleep and rest- 
Story of need of exercise. (Effects of no exercise.) 
When to exercise. (Eating and playing, overweariness.) 
Cause of being tired, and need of rest. (Fatigue poisons.) 
Play and work. (Rules for.) 

Why we sleep. (Compare with need of food or drink.) 
How much sleep we need. (How we are to know, rules.) 
When to sleep. (Habits of going to bed and getting up.) 
Best conditions for good sleep. (Quiet, good bed, air, 

darkness.) 
Causes of bad dreams. (Where dreams come from, cure 

for bad dreams.) 

Care of the body. — 

Why we should keep the body clean. (Health, attractive- 
ness, self-respect.) 

Bathing and care of the skin. (Frequency, how to bathe, 
etc.) 

Cleaning of the mouth and teeth. (Importance, rules, 
daily practise.) 

Care of the hair and scalp. (How to wash, when, how 
often.) 

Care of the nails. (Trimming, keeping clean, long nails, 
etc.) 

How to use the eyes. (Simple tests of vision, light, pos- 
ture of the head, etc.) 



296 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Care of the ears. (Cleanliness, ear troubles.) 
Cleanliness and neatness of clothing. (Brushing, wash- 
ing, taste, etc.) 

Troubles we may learn to prevent. — 

Colds, causes and cure. (How originated, treatment, pre- 
vention.) 

Headaches. (Common causes, cure.) 

Indigestion. (How to avoid, how to cure.) 

Earaches. (Causes, cure.) 

Sore throats. (Tonsil troubles, cure.) 

Toothache. (Decay and cleanliness, the need of consult- 
ing the dentist, etc.) 

Chapped hands. (Prevention, cure, cause.) 

Chilblains, etc. (Chilled feet suddenly warmed, cure, 
etc.) 

Freedom from disease. — 

Nature of disease. (Health the normal condition.) 
How diseases are spread. (Contagion, disease carriers.) 
Common disease carriers. (Flies, mosquitoes, water, 

milk, etc.) 
How to escape certain common diseases. (As colds, tu- 
berculosis, typhoid.) 
Troubles originating in mouth, nose or throat. (How to 

detect and cure.) 
Treatment of flies, mosquitoes, rats, etc. (Prevention 

and elimination.) 
Control of certain forms of bacteria. 
The elimination of tuberculosis. (Fresh air, spitting.) 
The principles of home, school and community sanitation. 

The forming of useful habits. — 

How habits grow. (Many illustrations, physical and men- 

^tal.) 

Good and bad habits. (List of each observed in school.) 

Habits of sitting, standing, walking. (Concrete illustra- 
tions.) 

Habits of eating; foods we grow to like, etc. (Illustra- 
tions.) 

Habits of speech, articulation, enunciation, etc. (Tests 
for.) 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 297 

Habits of preparing and reciting lessons. (Study meth- 
ods taught.) 

Habits of neatness, accuracy, promptness, etc. (Specific 
cases.) 

Bad habits to be cured. 1 — 

Biting the finger-nails. 

Sucking the thumb and fingers. 

Putting in the mouth money, mitten, lead pencil, corner of 

book, handkerchief or anything except food and drink. 
Coughing or sneezing with mouth uncovered. 
Promiscuous spitting. 
Rubbing the eyes. 
Picking the teeth with a pin. 
Sitting or standing on one foot. 
Slapping or pulling the ears. 
Borrowing one another's drinking cups, whistles, caps or 

handkerchiefs. 
Sitting in damp clothing and failing to remove outside 

wraps, as coats, sweaters and rubbers. 
Eating improper foods between meals. 
Neglecting to wash the hands after visits to the toilet. 
Snuffling and picking the nose. 

Emergencies and first aid. — 

Bruises and cuts. 

Sprains. 

Treatment of punctured wounds. 

How to bandage. 

Treatment of burns. 

Bleeding and its control. 

Drowning and asphyxiation. 

Frost bites. 

Poisons. 

Bites and stings. 

Senses and nervous system. — 

Part played by the senses. 

Their connection with brain. 

Hygiene and physiology of sight, hearing, etc. 

Nerves and nervousness. 



1 From Massachusetts Bulletin of the Board of Education No. 62. 



298 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Things that hinder health, growth and efficiency. — 
The effects of alcohol on growth. (General facts.) 
Alcohol and efficiency in work. (Rules against drinkers 

in factories, etc.) 
Alcohol and length of life; attitude of employers. (Il- 
lustrations.) 
Tobacco and growth in weight and strength; attitude of 

employers. (Results cited from various tests.) 
Worry, its effects, causes, cure. (How to prevent worry.) 
Effects of tea and coffee on growth and development. 
(Illustrations.) 

Text-book work.— The time at which a text-book is in- 
troduced in the course will have considerable part in de- 
termining the scope of the oral material. In many schools 
a two-book series will be found desirable. In such case 
the elementary text may well cover a number of the topics 
which otherwise waited to be used for oral work. Even 
where but one reasonably advanced text is used it will in- 
clude, from a different and more complete point of view, 
many of the topics presented orally earlier in the course. 

This is natural and right, but care must constantly be 
taken that mere repetition does not cripple the interest and 
destroy the usefulness of the work. The scope of treat- 
ment and the nature of the material must grow with the 
development and experience of the learner. His study must 
fit with the problems, interests and activities of his broader 
life and greater mental grasp. Without becoming technical, 
the material should grow more scientific. Here as in the 
earlier stages hygiene rather than the technicalities of physi- 
ology and anatomy is to govern the aim, though physiology 
will receive more attention than in the earlier grades. 

Elimination of unsuitable material. — The foregoing 
outline has suggested the points to be selected for emphasis 
in our instruction. Many teachers will, however, find them- 
selves handicapped by text-books that do not embody the 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 299 

point of view we have presented. Our advice to all such, 
where the text-book can not be changed, is to omit such 
material as is manifestly useless to the child and replace it 
with material that is fruitful. Following are some phases 
of the subject that should be omitted : 

Anatomy of the skeleton. 

Anatomy of the muscular system. 

Technical anatomy of the circulation and technical de- 
scription of* the circulation. 

Technical anatomy of the digestive system. 

All unnecessary technical terms that belong to advanced 
anatomy. 

Details of the anatomy of the eye and ear. 

Anatomical representation of organs affected by the use 
of alcohol. 

Detailed anatomy of the brain and nervous system with 
technical terms connected therewith. 

Microscopic anatomy of blood corpuscles, bone tissue, 
muscles, etc. 

Organisation and Presentation 

The problem of teaching physiology is simple because 
the material is so genuine, so plentiful, lies so near at hand, 
and because the practical application is so natural and im- 
mediate. The fundamental principle is to organise the 
instruction about the actual life, growth, health and develop- 
ment of the pupils in the home and the school. This will 
make the subject real and cause it to appeal to the interest 
and cooperation of the class. 

Much of the work in the lower grades may well take the 
form of positive directions. Too often instruction in hy- 
giene is mere talking about certain facts or rules, and not 
putting them into practise. The reasons lying back of the 
practise instituted should be given as soon as the mind of 
the child naturally inquires for them, but should not be 



300 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

forced too early. Method must in the lower grades be cen- 
tered upon hygienic habit. 

Motivating the work. — The Massachusetts Course of 
Study (Bulletin 62) suggests the following devices for 
arousing interest: 

Let the children share with the teacher responsibility in 
solving the health problems of the school; e. g., different 
children may be appointed : 

To have charge, for a time, of opening and closing win- 
dows to regulate the temperature of the room according 
to thermometer readings. 

To flush out the room at recess periods. 

To open windows during physical activities. 

To report condition of sanitaries. 

To note that all children remove their rubbers. 

To regulate the amount of light in the room by adjusting 
the window shades. 

The following practical exercises are also utilized. — 
A furnished doll's house, used effectively to teach hygienic 
ways of sweeping, dusting, airing day clothing and bed- 
clothing, best kinds of bed and pillow, position in sleeping, 
proper ventilation, etc. 

Demonstrations before the class of proper ways of clean- 
ing the teeth, washing the skin, caring for the nails, of sit- 
ting, standing, walking, lying, of getting on and off a car 
and of putting up a lunch. 

Exhibitions of proper materials for cleansing the skin, 
cleaning the teeth, caring for the nails and combing the hair. 

Collections of pictures made by the children supplement- 
ing that of the teacher, emphasizing important points, such 
as proper posture in sitting, standing, walking, etc. 

The finding and discussing of articles in magazines and 
papers. 

Posted lists of foods suitable for growing children; also 
lists of constipating and laxative foods. 

Tables indicating the amount of sleep required at differ- 
ent ages and food composition. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 301 

Story-telling to impress the idea of the controlling power 
of habit. 

Dramatizations by the younger children as a means of 
emphasizing the importance of right habits. 

Experiments performed to show currents of air, and tests 
made of air currents in the school room. 

Demonstrations. — An excellent device is some form of 
demonstration. For example, the day's lesson deals with 
the health and social factors involved in putting up a school 
or picnic lunch. Two children (or but one) are chosen to 
put up the lunch before the class ; to show why they choose 
certain articles of food in preference to others, why they 
wrap each sandwich in waxed paper, use of individual cups, 
how napkins are to be used, how to eat without soiling fin- 
gers or clothes, the value of an attractive appearing lunch 
and similar points. 

Demonstrations may be carried out in like manner on 
sweeping and dusting the room; correct breathing; right 
postures, standing, sitting, walking; caring for the nails, 
brushing the teeth, washing and drying the hair, etc. 

Practical exercises and experiments on physical growth 
and development. — Have children help make a chart or 
table showing the various physical measures for ages six 
to sixteen inclusive. Then proceed to conduct physical meas- 
urements of height, weight (in indoor clothing except shoes), 
chest girth, chest expansion, lung capacity (if a spirometer 
is available) and simpler tests of strength (as arm strength 
with dynamometer or an ordinary spring scale). The tests 
should be carefully repeated several times a year and an 
accurate record of each pupil kept. — (Good tape lines and 
the use of near-by scales will supply all the apparatus re- 
quired.) 

The use of such experiments and tests will serve first of 
all to stimulate and vitalize the study of physiology* The 



302 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

double motive of the genuine activity involved and the in- 
terest in whatever touches the ambition to be large and 
strong and efficient is irresistible. Children will respond 
enthusiastically to the appeal of such work. 

But it must be remembered that the measures and tests 
are not an end in themselves. Their real purpose is to afford 
a true starting point for instruction on the factors involved 
in physical growth and development. The practical experi- 
ments must make the child want to breathe better or as- 
sume better postures in order to increase his lung capacity. 
They must make him desire to eat a better ration or drink 
milk instead of coffee, that he may make a more favorable 
showing in size and strength. And when this attitude of 
mind is produced the pupil is then ripe for instruction. 

Exercises connected with the study of food and eating. 
— Practical points of contact for this phase of instruction 
can be secured by such methods as the following: Teach 
the pupils to keep an accurate record of the different kinds 
of food they eat during several days. Then discuss the 
question of foods, showing the best foods for producing 
growth and health. Also, without introducing any tech- 
nical terms, present several sample dietaries, explaining the 
need of the body for different kinds of food and laying the 
foundation for an understanding of the balanced ration. 
While tact will be required at this point, the deficiencies 
in faulty bills of fare can be clearly brought out and bad 
practises remedied. 

If a microscope of reasonable power is available an ex- 
cellent starting point for the discussion of disease germs 
in water and milk can be had by exhibiting the many forms 
of life easily visible in a drop of stagnant water. This will 
lead to practical lessons concerning the sources of contam- 
ination of water and milk, methods of sterilization, etc. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 303 

An investigation and report by the members of the class 
on the local breeding places for flies and mosquitoes which 
they have been able to discover, the practises with reference 
to screening houses and protecting food supplies in the 
homes or the markets, and the use made of fly-traps will 
serve as the foundation for many valuable lessons in this 
direction. 

Applied work on the study of air and breathing.— This 
topic offers an excellent opportunity for activity and applied 
lessons on the part of the pupils. Some of the subjects 
available for investigation, experiment and report are as 
follows : 

The number of windows in each pupil's sleeping-room, 
and how far they are kept open at different seasons. Also 
the number who sleep on open porches. 

A record taken for a week in the winter time of the tem- 
perature of the home living-room (1) in the morning at 
school time, (2) at noon, (3) in the evening. 

The methods and tests used to insure sufficient moisture 
in the heated air in the homes during the winter season. 

A study of methods of sweeping and dusting employed 
in the home, the school, in churches or public halls. 

An investigation of cellars and basements for dampness, 
molds and rubbish. 

A study of habits of sitting, standing and walking, and 
other bodily postures. Simple tests for good and bad pos- 
tures. 

With such practical starting points as these the instruc- 
tion can easily lead to the useful knowledge required for 
good hygiene and the formation of right habits of living. 

Care of the body.— Probably more tact and skill will 
be required in connection with this topic than with almost 
any other in the study of physiology. Yet it is precisely 



304 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

at such points that the teaching must be concrete and even 
personal if it is to be effective. Some of the practical ques- 
tions on which information may be gathered are : 

The number who have bath tubs in their homes. (Many 
communities have more automobiles than bath tubs.) The 
number of baths taken each week. 

The practise with reference to washing and brushing the 
hair. 

The ownership and use of tooth-brushes. Cleanliness of 
hands and care of nails. Many teachers have introduced 
the "morning inspection" of hands, nails, hair and teeth of 
all children in their room. Others have formed "tooth-brush 
clubs." 

Simple eye tests such as can be made for near or far 
sight or for astigmatism by use of a chart that may be had 
from oculists at a cost of from twenty-five to fifty cents. 
These should be a part of the school equipment. 

A count of the number of teeth in each mouth. Number 
that are perfect. Number loose. Number decayed. Num- 
ber that ache. Teeth that are crowded or defective in po- 
sition. 

Prevention of sickness and disease.— The aim here is 
not to arouse the child's fears or make him morbid over 
sickness, but rather to show that health is the normal condi- 
tion, and that much of sickness and disease can be avoided. 
Some of the topics investigated may be: 

How many of the so-called children's diseases each one 
has had. How each disease was taken if known. (Show 
that many of the diseases long thought to be inevitable are 
now being driven out.) 

What sicknesses each has had within a year (cause and 
how avoided.) How many have not had to take medicine, 
stay in bed or have the doctor for a year. 

A study of the condition of tonsils and nose. (The 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 305 

teacher should be able to detect adenoids or diseased ton- 
sils.) 

Prevalence of or freedom from headaches, earaches, in- 
digestion, chapped hands, chilblains, etc. 

In these lines as in the preceding the object of the personal 
factor is to centralize interest and cause the facts learned 
to begin functioning at once in leading to the practise of 
better hygiene in the daily life. 

Dramatization. — The following excellent suggestions 
for dramatizing instruction in hygiene is given in Bulletin 
62 of the Massachusetts Board of Education: 

Playing at housekeeping. — A part of the class room is 
screened off to form a room about the size of a room in 
an ordinary house. This is furnished with dining-table, 
chairs, rocking-chair, bookcase, etc., all of children's size. 
Part of the furniture is loaned by the children and part 
owned by the school. Dishes and dishpan, a broom and 
dustpan, form part of the equipment. In any given lesson 
certain children are chosen to represent the various mem- 
bers of a family ; they act out their special parts aided by 
suggestions from the other children and the teacher. The 
mother and daughter play that they prepare, serve, share 
and clear away a meal. The father and son behave accord- 
ingly. At another time the room is fitted up as a living- 
room, and the play takes a form corresponding to that idea. 
This project offers opportunities for a great variety of les- 
sons in cleanliness, good table manners, selection of foods, 
wholesome home life, etc. 

To illustrate an emergency treatment. — Children jump- 
ing a brook. Ruth slips on pebble, falls, spraining ankle. 
Other two take off her shoe and stocking and hold ankle 
in the cold water. Replace stocking and shoe, lacing shoe 
tightly. Make handkerchief seat and carry injured one to 
camp. At camp alternate hot and cold water douches. 
Massage and bandage. Ruth sits for a time with foot up. 
Later exercises gently. Ankle massaged and rebandaged. 

Dangers arising from ignorant or careless people in 



306 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

case of contagious diseases.— Little girl receives a letter 
from a cousin, telling her she has been ill with diphtheria. 
A few days later, children playing in yard. Ada sits apart 
and complains of headache. Ada refuses to eat at supper 
table. Mother puts her to bed. Finding her feverish, calls 
doctor. Doctor questions Ada. Traces illness to letter. 
Pronounces case diphtheria. Sign put on house and nurse 
called. Ada asks for big doll. Mother gives her a smaller 
one, as everything must be burned which Ada touches. Ada 
improves. Playmates call, but are refused admission. Ada 
recovers. Such things as toys and bedding burned. Room 
disinfected. Continued isolation after card has been re- 
moved until doctor pronounces throat perfectly clean. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Do you agree with the six points suggested under aim in this 
chapter? In what grade do you begin oral instruction in hygiene? 
Are you able to get the pupils to practise what you teach them ? 

2. Does your first text-book in physiology emphasize chiefly the 
hygiene or the anatomy material? If the latter, what can you do to 
supplement? Are you teaching any of the more technical material 
recommended for omission? 

3. Have you made any careful study of the health conditions of 
your pupils? Eyes? Teeth? Tonsils? Adenoids? Bad postures? 
What is the medical inspection law, if any, of your state? 

4. Do your pupils enjoy the physiology recitation? Do you have 
them dramatize any of the work? Have you tried tooth-brush clubs, 
fresh-air clubs? Do you have daily inspection of hands and nails, 
hair, teeth, etc., among the younger children ? 

5. To what degree do you think your teaching of physiology is 
resulting in better health among your pupils ? Is it reducing colds ? 
Tendency to tuberculosis ? Eating unsuitable foods, etc. ? Is it im- 
proving postures and carriage? Is it increasing interest and pride 
in health, growth and vigor ? 

REFERENCES 

Terman, The Hygiene of the School Child., Houghton Mifflin 
Co., New York. 

Hoag and Terman, Health Work in the Schools. Houghton 
Mifflin Co., New York. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 307 

Dresslar, School Hygiene. Macmillan Co., New York. 

Gulick, Work and Play. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York. 

Bancroft, The Posture of the School Child. Macmillan Co., New 
York. 

Curtis, Education Through Play. Macmillan Co., New York. 

Ayres, Health Work in Public Schools. Survey Committee, 
Cleveland, Ohio. 

Massachusetts Board of Education, A Course of Study in Physi- 
ology and Hygiene. Boston, Mass. 



CHAPTER XVIII 



PENMANSHIP 



PENMANSHIP is esteemed so important a part of edu- 
cation that much time and attention are devoted to it. 
The Massachusetts Course of Study, for example, provides 
for seventy-five minutes a week for the first two years, and 
one hundred minutes a week for the next four years in 
this subject. This is a greater proportion of time than is 
devoted to any other subject except reading, language and 
arithmetic. 

The Aim — What We Seek Through Penmanship 

The aim of penmanship teaching is to train our pupils 
to legible, rapid, neat writing. Legibility comes first. No 
matter how fine the curves or fancy the appearance, none 
of these things counts as against clearness and ease of read- 
ing. The writing must proceed with fair speed. The slow 
writer not only wastes time, but also hinders his thought; 
for thoughts move faster than the pen and have a tendency 
to escape and be forgotten if the pen delays too long. Hand- 
writing should be neat, for taste, character and efficiency 
are in no small degree judged by one's writing. 

Knowledge required. — The knowledge required in pen- 
manship is not extensive. By far the greater part of the 
emphasis must be given to practise and drill in order to 
attain ready skill. Nevertheless, there are certain important 
things which the child must know: 

308 



PENMANSHIP 309 

1. The correct letter forms. 

2. Correct positions of person and paper in writing. 

3. Right movements in forming letters. 

Letter forms. At the beginning the child should write 
with the letter form directly before him so that he will have 
a model to copy, and also so that he will get the letter image 
well fixed in his mind. One's writing finally becomes auto- 
matic, the right forms being made without conscious direc- 
tion. But while the child is in the process of learning the 
forms he must be able to think them. This makes it of 
supreme importance that only good writing shall be placed 
before the child while he is learning to form the letters. 

Many controversies have been waged over the best form 
or 6tyle of letters. Extreme slant, vertical and median 
slant letters of varying shapes have all had their advocates 
(and systems of copy-books). At present there seems to 
be a rather general consensus of judgment that a simple let- 
ter of median slant is most legible and most easily and rap- 
idly produced. The following is a fair sample of the letter 
forms that should be taught the child : 

a 73 O j$- O # Jr ^^ 8 ?T*£ 

C^. *L ay ^c^ cy c& -*y ~J> a^ ^Ay *<cy -<*— 
sfcs -><y srn/ sns &-* ~y&s jl/ Ay st-* ~4S ^£y ^ccy 
sv~ ^tf^-* s&y yif sjy /z-Jtt-SCyffo 

Correct position. Much depends on early teaching of cor- 
rect position in writing. This will not only result in better 
penmanship, but will save fatigue, eye strain and many evil 
effects that come from bad bodily postures. 

The best position is facing the desk, or with the right 
side turned slightly toward the desk. The feet should be 



310 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

on the floor in easy natural position, instead of crossed or 
cramped up under the child. The body should lean forward 
slightly from the hips, and the head be tilted just enough 
forward to give the eyes an easy angle of vision. The writ- 
ing arm should have a full easy support on the desk from 
the elbow, resting only on the cushion of muscle in front 
of the elbow, and the nails of the last two fingers. The 
free hand should lightly hold the paper. The pen should be 
held easily and naturally, without gripping. As the writing 
on a page proceeds, the paper should be moved up so that 
the arm may not need to move down and so get out of po- 
sition. 

Movement. From the child's earliest writing he should 
be taught to get as free and easy a movement as possible. 
The muscular movement is now generally approved by writ- 
ers and teachers of penmanship. The driving force is from 
the large muscles of the upper arm and shoulder, the muscle 
cushion of the forearm allowing a rolling, gliding movement 
to take place. True, the small child does not have much 
of a muscle cushion. Yet the free movement should be 
taught from the first instead of a cramped finger move- 
ment. It is best not to allow habits to form which will 
later need to be unlearned. The following exercises are 
typical of those that should be used to develop the muscular 
movement: 




PENMANSHIP 311 



O^ssssSSsLS O^A.^C^C^t^ (Q^COCsC*sC*>tS 

CJ^^T^y^T^iy { Js?>?^rrrr?^S LJ^tto^t^t^ 



/Td-dvzn /??723n ^pra^ey sdZTdP") /Tdrzvzn s2??d?r) 
ey ^ ^ *y & *j O) *} °) *0 ty h 

3222222222^^^ 



j////W Js UMMM& IMMH/JO 



Skills to be trained. — Skill in penmanship involves not 
only the question of legibility, speed and general appear- 
ance, but also the degree to which one's best skill becomes 
his general average of writing. No one continuously writes 
as well as he can. Some habitually write far below their 
ability. For all practical purposes, one's skill in penman- 
ship is measured, not by a best sample of his writing, but 
by the kind of writing he turns out from day to day. Al- 
though it is undoubtedly best to have special periods for 
the teaching of penmanship, at least in the earlier grades, 
the instruction given at this time must be made to carry 
across to general written work if our teaching is to be ef- 
fective. 

Many attempts have been made to standardize skill in 
writing by devising certain tests or scales by which to judge 
legibility and speed. The most important of these are the 
Thomdike Scale of Handwriting, 1 and the Ayres Scale of 
Handzvriting. 2 The Ayres scale grades samples of writing 
from 20 to 80; the Thorndike scale from 4 to 18. The 



1 Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. (Cost of 
sample 5 cents.) 

2 Russell Sage Foundation, New York. (Cost of sample 5 cents.) 



312 



CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 



general idea in the two scales is the same, the basis of mark- 
ing the values being different. Page 313 shows a part of 
the Ayres scale. 

The schools of South Bend, Indiana, measured by the 
Ayres scale, showed the following results i 1 









Per cent, of 


Grade 


Ayres Quality 


Speed, letters 
per minute 


pupils making 
record shown 
in col. 2 and 3 


3 


40 


45 


77.5 


4 


40 


50 


77.5 


5 


50 


55 


77.5 


6 


50 


60 


77.5 


7 


60 


65 


77.5 


8 


60 


70 


77.5 



Doctor Frank N. Freeman investigated the skill in pen- 
manship in fifty-six cities of the United States and found 
the averages grade for grade slightly higher than the above, 
the difference not being marked. 2 

An interesting and important fact shown by the use of 
such scales is that writing ability progresses but little above 
that reached in the eighth grade. Or, at least, if greater 
skill is attained it is not kept. Thorndike found that one 
thousand Teachers College students wrote slightly under 
eighth-grade standard. Teachers tested in several normal 
institutes averaged no better in legibility than sixth- or 
seventh-grade writing. 

The facts have led to the important conclusion that when 
pupils have reached a fair standard of legibility and speed 
(say sixty on the Ayres scale or twelve on the Thorndike 



1 Quoted in Iowa Report on Elimination, 1915, page 20. 

2 Fourteenth Year Book of the National Society for the Study of 
Education, page 61. 




51 " 



feo 



lO 



"3 <*-i n 

^ o -. 
3 eg 



c a 



^ cm 

*J 4> O 

T* "O TH 

" feg, 

4, X «* 

j- T3 S 

bo e > 
•s . o 
8 .a* 

u*a ° 
ii -•« 

"U 4) i-. 

3 3 -a 
a c 






o>v 



ftOU 
(0 *> W 

a; m 43 

« « 5 
w rt-5 

CO u 

<v a tt 

>» c 2 

<J rt 4) 

41 «0 *» 

i o 



° £ 

c 2 

o ^ 
**3 ^i *° 

<" 3 «« 

•» O O 

^ (6T3 

•"5 °< 

Cu at 



314 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

scale) they should be excused from further drill on pen- 
manship. This plan is being followed in many good schools 
at present. Writing classes above the sixth grade are main- 
tained only for those who require further instruction and 
drill to bring them up to the standard set. Teachers should 
secure a copy of one or both of the scales mentioned and 
test the progress of their pupils by them. 

Attitudes to be developed. — Interest in good penman- 
ship and pride in personal skill are among the greatest in- 
centives to good work in writing. These attitudes, once 
grounded, will also save from carelessness and slovenly pen- 
manship outside the writing hour. Pupils should be stimu- 
lated to set reasonably high standards for themselves and 
then have the perseverance to make these ideals over into 
practise. Good taste should always be at a premium. 

Conducting the Writing Hour 

Writing, like other lessons, requires keen study, attention 
and alertness. Each pupil should daily strive to better his 
own record in legibility and speed. All manuscripts, whether 
from the writing period or other written work, should show 
taste and neatness. 

The writing time. — Since penmanship requires stead- 
iness of nerve and muscular control, the writing period 
should not come immediately following an intermission 
given to play. Nor should the lesson be long enough so that 
fatigue results. Fifteen minutes of drill is long enough for 
one time. Two ten-minute periods a day are better. 

Models and incentives. — As already stated, the child 
should have placed before him only good models. The let- 
ter forms should be simple, and not the over-perfect en- 
graved type that characterized the earlier copy-books. 
Whether a copy-book is used is not highly essential, though 



PENMANSHIP 315 

it is best to have pen copies of normal size before the pupils 
rather than to depend on charts or blackboard copies. No 
shading should be allowed. The teacher should use the 
blackboard freely. 

A copy of one of the Ay res or Thorndike scales should be 
prominently displayed on the wall of the room, and pupils 
instructed as to the mark they should reach in their respec- 
tive grades. It will be possible in most schools to get up a 
healthy spirit of rivalry to "beat the chart." This ambi- 
tion should, of course, extend to all written work, and not 
just to the performance of the writing hour. A sample of 
every child's writing should be taken at the beginning, mid- 
dle and end of every year and compared with that of other 
pupils and with the scale. 

Conducting the drill. — One of the worst faults of many 
writers is an irregular, jerky movement. This is sure to re- 
sult in ill-formed, scrawly letters and slow speed. The mus- 
cular movement will tend to remedy this fault, but it should 
also be prevented or cured by definite attempts at securing 
rhythm of movement. This can be done by counting for cer- 
tain exercises, the entire class falling into time with the 
strokes. Other devices are the use of a metronome, or 
time-marker, or the playing of music suitable to the move- 
ment desired. The children should also be taught to think 
a rhythm for themselves when practising on movements. 
The aim is, of course, to develop an inner sense of time and 
to coordinate the writing movements with it. All the exter- 
nal helps suggested must lead to this end. In counting or 
marking time the count should come on the down or right 
strokes. 

Individual teaching. — While the exercises and drills 
may be given to the whole class together, much individual 
instruction should be given. One child may have trouble to 
get the swing of the movement, another may lack a sense of 



316 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

rhythm, while a third may have wrong forms for his letters. 
Each will need to have direct and close supervision to cure 
him of his faults. 

Whatever the system of copy-books or other models placed 
before the pupils, eternal vigilance is required to insure 
progress instead of deterioration under drill. Most teachers 
have been troubled by finding the first line of the child's 
writing after the copy fairly good, the next not so good, the 
third worse, and so on with increasing badness to the bottom 
of the page. This must be avoided, for drilling in the wrong 
direction will never lead to efficiency. One method, where 
the copy-book with a set copy is used is to have the child 
begin on the last line and work up toward the copy. He will 
then not copy his own imperfect letter forms. 

Materials. — Soft pencils and rather wide-ruled paper 
make the best equipment for the first grade. Pens may be 
given to the second grade, but the pens should be stiff and 
the points should not be sharp. The penholder should have 
a grip of cork or rubber, and not the smooth metal clip so 
often used. It is impossible to hold a pen of this sort with- 
out gripping it tight, which cramps the hand and hinders 
full and easy movement. The paper should be smooth, and 
hard glazed, and the ink an easy-running fluid. A supply of 
good blotters should always be on hand. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Have you ever tested your pupils by one of the scales for 
handwriting discussed in this chapter? If not, are you not willing to 
do so? To test for speed, have the pupils write ordinary copy for 
two minutes. Count the letters. One-half of the number will repre- 
sent their speed. 

2. Do your pupils use a muscular or finger movement? Have 
you definite drills which you use to develop skill in movement? 
Have you tried to improve their rhythm of writing? 

3. Try taking samples of your entire class on the same copy. 



PENMANSHIP 317 

Now study these individually for faults that need correction, Can 
you devise exercises to correct the faults? 

4. Note the postures of your pupils in writing. Do some sit with 
cramped arm? With bodies or head out of position? Do some 
write with cramped fingers? Can you remedy the troubles? 

5. Are your pupils noticeably improving in their penmanship? 
Do you give full time to the penmanship work? Do you make it 
definite and individual? Are you becoming a better penmanship 
teacher ? 

REFERENCES 

Freeman, The Teaching of Handwriting. Houghton Mifflin Co., 
New York. 

Thorndike, A Scale of Handwriting. Teachers' College Record, 
March, 1910. 

Ayres, A Scale of Handwriting. Russell Sage Foundation, New 
York. 

Thompson, Psychology and Pedagogy of Writing. 



CHAPTER XIX 



AGRICULTURE 



/AGRICULTURE has its beginning in the study of na- 
J^\ ture. Nature study is the study of the great out-of- 
doors. It should begin with the child's entrance into school, 
and continue in some form as long as he attends. Agricul- 
ture, which is a specialized form of nature study, should have 
a separate place on the program during the seventh and 
eighth grades. There will be no necessity or attempt in this 
discussion to distinguish sharply between nature study and 
agriculture for the earlier grades. 

The Aim — Results Sought 

Nature is an insistent and ever-present reality to every 
person. Its sights and sounds and contacts are always 
thronging upon our senses. Its objects constantly appeal 
to our observation. Its beauty daily enriches our lives. Its 
problems are a perpetual challenge to our investigation and 
mastery. Its gifts supply our needs, and give us the com- 
forts and luxuries we enjoy. Surely an important part of 
our education is to enter as fully as possible into an under- 
standing and appreciation of our natural environment. 

Agriculture is the most fundamental and important of all 
industries. It employs millions of workers, and supplies 
the prime necessities, food and clothing. Whatever be our 
occupation or status in life we all go back to the soil for what 
we eat and wear. Upon the success of agriculture the wel- 
fare of all other industries and vocations depends. Whether 

318 



AGRICULTURE 319 

one is to follow farming as a career or live in a city, some 
knowledge of agriculture is necessary to breadth and intelli- 
gence. The study of agriculture should therefore not be 
limited to those who are to follow farming as a vocation. 

Knowledge to be sought.— -Agriculture and the study 
of nature should yield certain well-defined knowledge, the 
more important phases of which may be classified as follows : 

1. Acquaintance with the common forms of life daily met 
in our environment, that we may understand their relation 
to our welfare. 

2. Knowledge of the plants and animals upon which we 
are dependent, including their economic production, and 
the conservation of the fertility of the soil which supports 
them. 

3. Knowledge of agriculture as an occupation, its oppor- 
tunities, demands and rewards. This, for children, will of 
course deal with but the broader phases of the question. 

4. Knowledge of how to make the country home as com- 
fortable, convenient and attractive as the city home while at 
the same time the owners are winning economic independ- 
ence. 

Attitudes to be developed.- — The study of nature and 
of agriculture is as important for the attitudes and inter- 
ests it develops as for the knowledge it trains. Some of 
the chief attitudes to be sought are the following : 

1. A broad appreciation of nature and spontaneous en- 
joyment from contact with living, growing things, or from 
fields, sky or stream. Love of nature enriches the life, 
broadens the sympathies, and results in longer, happier and 
better lives. 

2. An interest and pride in high-grade achievement on the 
part of those who make farming their vocation. Agriculture 
offers opportunities for a worthy career not fully appreciated 
by many who till the soil. He who makes eighty bushels of 



320 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

corn grow where but forty grew before is not only a bene- 
factor of his race, but he has attained a personal success of 
which he may well feel proud. 

3. High esthetic and hygienic standards for country life 
and homes. The farm-house can be made beautiful, health- 
ful and satisfying and the homestead show a spirit of artistry 
in work without in the least interfering with the economic 
returns. 

4. Standards and appreciations that will increase the at- 
tractiveness of towns and cities through adding touches of 
nature to home buildings and grounds, and securing better 
care of streets, alleys, parks, etc. 

5. Honest appreciation and admiration for worthy labor, 
such as goes to produce our food, shelter and clothing. 

Skills to be trained. — The study of nature and of agri- 
culture should carry across to certain definite skills. Among 
these should be such as : 

1. Ability to identify the following: common domestic 
animals of the region; wild animals most commonly seen; 
common birds and insects; characteristic trees and shrubs; 
the native farm crops and garden plants, common flowers. 

2. Skill in caring for, or producing, such of the above as 
commonly come within the interests and care of the average 
person. For the farmer this will mean ability to make agri- 
culture pay. 

3. Skill in planning and carrying out a project for a home 
garden, farm crop or other enterprise for beautifying the 
home or adding to its welfare. 

4. Skill in using nature and outdoor life or work as a 
means to happiness, culture and health. This means power 
to grow under the influence of nature. 

That even children are capable of developing worthy skill 
in certain of these lines is abundantly proved by the fine 
display of garden, orchard and farm produce shown in 



AGRICULTURE 321 

many of the school and club exhibits, and also by the prize 
poultry, pigs, calves, etc., which children have produced 
under the stimulus of agriculture study. Indeed, the largest 
yields of corn and of certain of the garden crops produced 
in the country have come from club boys and girls who have 
translated their instruction and interest into applied skill. 

The Material to be Taught 

The material for the study of nature and of agriculture is 
not to be found in text-books. The great objective is the 
out-of-doors. With this our class must have first-hand con- 
tact, or better a thousand times omit the subject. True, 
books will be used ; we shall need the best of text-books. But 
these contain none of our real material, they only show us 
how to look for and understand the objects we find in na- 
ture about us. We are to study things, not words. 

It is so much easier to understand what a book says about 
a thing than to observe, study and understand the thing itself 
that teachers, even though they know the method is bad, 
have a tendency to substitute the book for the plants or ani- 
mals which the book describes. Especially is this true if the 
teacher has never made a study of agriculture or of nature. 
But even with the handicap of inadequate preparation it still 
is better to study the real objects with the children than to 
teach empty words about them. For by this method the 
child's habit of observation at least will be developed and 
interest cultivated in the environment. 

Organized agriculture, taught as a separate subject and 
having a distinct place on the program, should be reserved 
for the seventh and eighth grades. Many schools limit it to 
the eighth grade. But a broad and valuable fund of infor- 
mation and a rich field of interests concerning nature should 
be growing up during the earlier grades. As already shown, 



322 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

this can be successfully accomplished in connection with 
language, reading and geography study, while at the same 
time enriching the contents of these studies. 

Material for the earlier grades.- — The purpose in the 
lower grades is not to present a connected and scientific view 
of agriculture or any other phase of nature study. It is 
rather to study each year a few of the most interesting 
phases of nature that lie close at hand. No outline or course 
of study can prescribe the detail of what should be taught in 
different schools; this must be determined by the interests 
of the pupils, the season, the time available, and the char- 
acter of the environment. 

An illustration of the point of view is found in the sub- 
ject-matter in nature study and elementary agriculture rec- 
ommended to teachers by the New York State College of 
Agriculture, which for the year 1916-17 includes the fol- 
lowing topics : x 

Birds. — For special study, the downy woodpecker and 
the hen ; to be recognized, any two other winter birds and any 
five of the following: robin, bobolink, redstart, red-eyed 
vireo, blackbird, yellow warbler, humming bird, marsh wren, 
turkey, owl. 

Animals. — For special study, the toad and the cow; to 
be recognized, any four of the following : frog, hog, bat, rat, 
rabbit. 

Insects. — For special study, the ant or the honey bee, 
and one biting and one sucking insect ; to be recognized, any 
four of the following : cricket, dragon-fly, cutworm, hornet, 
cecropia. 

Plants. — For special study, the bean ; to be recognized, 
one of the clovers, one of the grains, one of the grasses, and 
any six of the following: elder, tulip, dandelion, buttercup, 
lily, chickweed, verbena, beet, tomato, squirrel corn; to be 
studied, any four of the following weeds: quack-grass, 
orange hawkweed, dandelion, chickweed, yellow daisy. 

1 Rural School Leaflet, Vol. X, No. 1, page 33. 



AGRICULTURE 323 

Trees. — For special study, the apple and one conifer; 
to be recognized, two kinds of fruit trees, one conifer, any 
four of the following: hemlock, pine, peach, pear, hickory, 
cucumber tree, maple, locust, ash, basswood. 

The outline of material just given was intended for New 
York State, and was planned for the earlier grades. Other 
regions, while using the same general topics, would, of 
course, vary the details to suit the local conditions. An im- 
portant caution is to avoid undertaking too many topics. 
Make a reasonably thorough study of a few topics of most 
interest to the pupils and the community, and a somewhat 
general study of a wider range to broaden the interest and 
pave the way for more complete investigation later. 

Seventh- and eighth-grade material. — Seventh- and 
eighth-grade material should be more definitely organized 
than that of the lower grades to give a somewhat systematic 
view of the fundamentals in agriculture. The matter should 
not be technical, over-scientific, nor too difficult. Neither 
should it be trivial nor childish. It should deal with what 
is nearest at hand and most important in the locality. 

It is best in most cases for the pupils to have a text-book, 
though it is to be remembered that the agriculture is out in 
the fields. The text will supply certain necessary informa- 
tion, suggest problems and give directions for study of the 
field material. In no case, however, is the order or material 
of a text-book to dominate the course of instruction. Crops 
must be studied as they are in season. The animals most 
important in the region are to have precedence. It is prob- 
ably best, therefore, to base the study on a definite outline 
made to fit the immediate needs and conditions of the vicin- 
ity. The text-book and reference material will then be 
studied as required by the outline and field or laboratory 
work. 



324 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Material similar to that in the following outline is suc- 
cessfully used for seventh- and eighth-grade work: 

Com 

The plant, roots, ear and tas- Corn judging. 

sel. Testing the seed. 

Counting the stand in field. Seed bed, planting, cultiva- 
Collecting and storing seed. tion. 

Harvesting corn crop. Corn enemies, weeds, insects. 

Silo, structure, use, profits. Rotation based on corn. 

Production and use of Milk 

Testing the milk, why, how. Keeping the milk clean. 

Best types of dairy cows. Butter making. 

Keeping dairy records. Use of milk as food. 

Feeding dairy cows. Sterilizing milk. 

Poultry 

Breeds for egg production. Fattening for market. 

Feeding and care for laying. Housing of poultry. 

Care and marketing of eggs. Keeping free from diseases. 

Eggs as a food. Competing in poultry shows. 

The Garden 

Soil and seed bed. Spraying fruit and vege- 

The garden plan. tables. 

Planting time. Planting and pruning trees. 

The hotbed and coldframe. Storing winter fruit. 

Canning and preserving. 

Oats and Wheat 

Seed bed and planting. Harvesting and threshing. 

Varieties on home farms. Uses and markets. 

Prevention of rust and scab Insect enemies. 



AGRICULTURE 



325 



Forage Crops 



Grasses and legumes. 
Field study of varieties. 
Clover and alfalfa. 
Nitrifying soil renewers. 



Study of kinds of soil. 
How soil is produced. 
Fertility and plant growth. 
Moisture and drainage. 



Feeding values. 
Care of meadows and pas- 
tures. 



Soils 



Use of manures. 
Value of legumes. 
Rotation and fertility. 
Irrigation and dry farming. 



Hogs 



Local number and variety 

study. 
Housing and care. 
Feeding. 



Diseases, prevention, cure. 
Killing, cutting, curing. 
Different breeds. 



Horses 



Study of local types. 
Leading breeds. 
Feeding and care. 



Training and driving. 
Unsoundness and driving. 
Judging. 



Weeds 



Study of common varieties. Effects on crop and soil. 
How weeds spread. Birds and weed seed. 

Identification of weed seeds. Extermination of weeds. 



It is not meant that the above is a complete outline of the 
material for a course in agriculture. Other topics will need 
to be added according to the region, and some of those given 
omitted. As already stated, the local needs and conditions 
must determine the details of the content. Every state col- 
lege of agriculture publishes outlines of material adapted 
to the region, and every teacher should avail himself of this 
expert assistance. 



336 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

What to omit. — Not a few of the elementary texts have 
presented matter too difficult for children and unsuited to 
the purposes of this study in the grades. They have pro- 
ceeded from the logical instead of the psychological point 
of view. The following should be omitted from elementary 
agriculture : 

All chemistry given under the name of agriculture. 
Technical botanical and physiological terms. 
Technical analysis of various food elements. 
Biological laws, as of Mendel. 
Detailed study of crops not locally grown. 
Biological explanation of cross-breeding. 
Whatever else may be beyond the grasp or outside the in- 
terest of the pupils. 

Organisation and Presentation 

The foregoing outline of material is not meant as a teaek- 
ing outline. Very few if any topics should be carried en- 
tirely through and dropped with a continuous series of les- 
sons. For example, when school starts in September, com 
is the natural topic with which to begin in the corn belt. But 
the testing of seed should wait for late winter and the study 
of planting and seed bed for spring. Only part of the corn 
lessons will come in the fall, therefore, other topics supple- 
menting and rilling the time. 

An interesting time schedule for teaching agriculture in 
middle western schools is recommended by the Iowa Col- 
lege of Agriculture. 1 This table provides for one year of 
work five days a week. It is evident that the same propor- 
tions could be maintained in a course of two years one, two 
or three days a week : 

1 Teaching Agriculture in Elementary Schools, page 10. 



AGRICULTURE 



327 



■ .. -■ r>!K?— -wwj'- mm";- raa«s,i ■■.■....: .■.:■.■ ■. ■ 


NUMBER OF PERIODS PER MONTH 


TOPICS 


in 


o 
O 


> 
o 


o 

p 


c 

c<3 










+-» 
O 


Birds . ... . . . 


\ 












2 


1 




3 




















3 


3 










5 










i 


5 


Conveniences, farm and home 
















|4 


. . 


4 




7 


5 


5 


5 


6 


3 


4 


4 


3 


42 


Farm management 


,4 


1 












1 


. . ■ 


6 


Feeds and feeding 


. . 


, . 


. . - 


. . 


. . 


2 






i 


2 






2 














! 


2 












5 


1 








6 




















6 


6 










5 










i 


5 




5 












9 


1 


§ ^ 


15 




2 










4 






l 


7 




















4 


4 


Milk and its products 


. . 


6 















..1 


11 


Oats 




3 








3 




5 


i 


6 






5 


Potatoes 




3 


9 






3 
1 






1 


6 






11 
















5 


^ % 


• .! 


5 








1 


5 












6 














3 








3 












5 










5 


Wheat 


2 








4 






4 


1 


6 

4 




20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


18 


178 



Such an arrangement, while not adapted in detail for all 
regions, contains a valuable suggestion. The division of time 
is such that each topic is taken up at the season best adapted 
to some phase of its study. Nor is any one subject continued 
long enough to tire the interest of pupils in studying it. 

Home project work. — From the very first lesson the 
pupils should be made to realize that agriculture is the study 
of the farm and its activities. They are never to think that 
they can "get the lesson" by memorizing certain pages of a 
book. They are to realize that the text and all reference ma- 



328 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

terial are to help them answer questions and master prob- 
lems growing out of their study of an ear of corn, the gar- 
den crop, the preparation of a seed bed. 

The most successful carrying out of this point of view is 
in what is called home project work. This only means that 
the child shall actually be doing what he is learning — not as 
a made-up exercise at school, but genuinely at home, in 
the garden or the field, or in caring for the poultry or animals 
of the farm. In this way the interests become very real and 
the motives very compelling. What is learned is put at once 
into service, and therefore passes from theory over into 
practise. 

Parents are usually more than willing to cooperate in 
home project work, for they can see practical good coming 
from the school study. In this way the home and the school 
are more closely united. Better methods of agriculture are 
often carried over from the pupils' home project to the 
broader work of the farm and thus made a part of the farm 
practise. 

The best teaching of agriculture is everywhere attempting 
to have the instruction reach definitely to the farm through 
some form of home project work. The following represents 
home projects suitable for upper-grade children : 

Taking charge of a section of the vegetable garden. 
Assuming full responsibility for the care of poultry. 
Feeding and caring for a calf or a pig. 
Raising an acre of corn or other grain. 
Setting out and caring for certain shrubbery. 
Cultivating, picking and marketing berries. 
Spraying, picking and marketing certain fruit. 
Planting and caring for a bed of flowers. 

The state college of agriculture, the agricultural club lead- 
ers and the county agents are always ready to cooperate with 



AGRICULTURE 329 

the school in home project work. The wise teacher will 
work closely with all these agencies. 

The school study should of course correlate directly with 
the home project. The teacher should have some oversight 
of the home work if possible, to give advice and direction. 
The child should receive school credit for home project work 
carefully carried out in accordance with the lessons of the 
course. 

Treatment of a lesson topic. — Before going to the field, 
the woods or the farm for special study of a topic, there 
should be careful preparation. Otherwise the trip will lose 
at least a part of its value, and may degenerate into a mere 
excursion. Either through a study of the text-book or a dis- 
cussion by the teacher the principal points to be observed and 
noted should be clearly understood. Maps or preliminary 
diagrams or tables for notation should be prepared in the 
note-books if required. Each pupil should then be held 
responsible for gathering the information which the class 
went to seek and as much more as his own interest and ob- 
servation may make possible. 

A recitation lesson should then be devoted to the subject, 
with a free discussion on the points observed and their mean- 
ing. Notes should be compared, errors corrected, and mean- 
ings explained. Following this discussion there should 
usually be further study of the text and other references. 

Agricultural "demonstrations."— The "demonstration" 
has for its purpose the teaching of some definite truth by 
means of concrete example. The aim of an experiment' is 
to discover truth ; the aim of a demonstration is to put truth 
into practise. The demonstration may be performed by one 
individual or by a class before the school or in the presence 
of neighborhood club meetings, at fairs, or any other as- 
semblies. The exercise consists in showing how to do cer- 



330: CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

tain important things connected with the farm or the home. 
Suitable demonstration exercises are suggested by the fol- 
lowing : x 

How to test seed corn in various types of testers. 

How to string and hang seed corn. 

How to furrow for surface irrigation. 

How to select and cut seed potatoes. 

How to detect weed seed in clover, etc. 

How to set and prune tomato plants. 

How to make a fruit-tree graft. 

How to set a hen. 

How to weigh and test milk. 

How to break, mount or drive a horse. 

How to spray trees or vegetables. 

How to take up and replant a tree. 

How to make bird-houses, fly-traps, etc. 

Play contests. — While the study of agriculture must be 
a serious business, there is no reason why the spirit of play 
should not enter into certain phases of the work. The mo- 
tive of competition and the game can be used to great advan- 
tage in such exercises as the following : 

Seed corn stringing or judging contests. 

Soil variety naming contest. 

Potato judging, naming or paring contest. 

Contest in packing and crating fruit for shipment. 

Story writing contest on suitable agricultural topics. 

Garden making and planting contests. 

Plowing contest. 

Rope-tying contest. 

Bird naming or describing contest. 

It is, of course, obvious that any of the demonstration ex- 
ercises can be made competitive and the contest spirit intro- 
duced. 

1 See Benson and Betts, Agriculture, for many demonstration and 
play contest exercises. 



AGRICULTURE 331 

Making collections. — The strong collecting instinct of 
children can be used to good advantage in the study of agri- 
culture. Every child will, under proper guidance, enter 
heartily into the project of making a collection of material 
for himself or, jointly with others, for the school. Not 
only is such work a stimulus to interest and observation, 
but it results in assembling valuable material for use in in- 
struction. Such collections as the following are adapted 
to elementary pupils : 

Samples of soil in uniform labeled bottles. 

Specimens of seeds of all local cereals. 

Seeds of troublesome weeds common to the vicinity. 

Specimens of grasses and legumes. 

Varieties of corn. 

Specimens of injurious worms and insects. 

Specimens of native woods. 

In addition to such collections, much valuable material 
can be secured free from various commercial concerns 
showing the process of manufacture of different foods, fab- 
rics, implements, etc. 

The use of note-books. — The note-book is a valuable 
help in teaching agriculture. The pupils should be pro- 
vided with note-books of uniform size. In these should be 
kept a record of all demonstrations, experiments, field trips, 
excursions and observations. Here should also be worked 
out all the exercises and problems required in the text, and 
those assigned by the teacher. Drawings, diagrams, tables 
or any other matter brought into the course should find 
their way into the note-book. Pictures of farm animals, 
crops, machines, farm buildings and the like, should be as- 
sembled and form a part of the record of the course. Every 
note-book should be neat and well kept, and arranged in a 
businesslike manner. 



332 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Junior extension work. — This is the name under which 
boys' and girls' agricultural club work is coming to be known. 
Originally organized on a wide scale by the United States 
Department of Agriculture in cooperation with the state agri- 
cultural colleges, the work has now grown until many thou- 
sands of boys and girls in all parts of the United States are 
studying (and practising) scientific agriculture under the 
direction of specialists. 

It is the desire of all leaders of the junior extension work 
to connect it as closely as possible with the public schools. 
This should be done. It will help the club work and vitalize 
and stimulate the study of agriculture in the schools. Teach- 
ers should everywhere seek the help of these specialists and 
look toward cooperating with their work. Information con- 
cerning how to proceed can always be had by writing the 
state college of agriculture or consulting the county agri- 
cultural agent. 

Club work may be defined as the carrying out of some 
definite farm, garden or home enterprise in accordance with 
certain specified directions and regulations. For example, 
corn-club boys or girls agree to produce an acre of corn on 
a business basis, doing all the work themselves and keeping 
an accurate record of the enterprise from beginning to end. 
Boys and girls from ten to nineteen years are eligible. The 
basis of scoring credit for the work may be as follows : 

Greatest yield per acre 30 

Best showing of profit 30 

Best exhibit of ten ears 20 

Crop record and story of "How I Made My Crop" 20 

Total score 100 

Other suitable club enterprises are : 

Rearing, care and marketing of poultry. 
Raising and canning one-tenth acre of tomatoes. 



AGRICULTURE 333 

Market garden club. 

Feeding, caring for and marketing one or more pigs. 

Any home or farm project that can be given quite com- 
pletely into the child's care and made to show definite re- 
sults. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Note carefully the aims proposed in the way of knowledge, 
attitudes and skills and decide whether these meet with your ap- 
proval. If so, do you keep them before you as you teach in order 
to make your instruction more definite ? 

2. Are your boys and girls good observers? What methods do 
you employ in teaching agriculture to improve this power ? Do you 
definitely prepare yourself and class before a field trip so that spe- 
cific problems or questions are in mind for observation and study? 

3. Are you careful not to let agriculture become a text-book sub- 
ject? On the other hand, you will need to be equally careful that 
text-books are studied in connection with all the topics so that a 
scattering, superficial knowledge may not result from incomplete 
understanding. 

4. What home projects have your pupils under way? Do you 
manage to supervise these to some degree? Do you find that such 
work makes pupils anxious to study on their project at school? 
Have you won the support of the homes to this line of work? 

5. Who is your state agricultural club leader? Your county 
agent? Could the club idea be promoted to advantage in your 
school? What government and state agricultural bulletins has your 
school library on hand? Are these well classified and taken care of? 
Are they fruitfully used ? 

REFERENCES 

Leake, Means and Methods of Agricultural Education. Hough- 
ton Mifflin Co., New York. 

Bishop, Farrar and Hoffman, Bulletin, Teaching Agriculture in 
Rural and Graded Schools. Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. 

Bricker, Teaching of Agriculture in the High School. Macmillan 
Co., New York. 

New York State College of Agriculture, Rural School Leaflet, 
Ithaca, N. Y. 



334 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

The U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, dis- 
tributes hundreds of bulletins on all agricultural subjects free. 

The state college of agriculture in each state supplies free of 
charge to residents many bulletins, outlines, etc., of great value in 
teaching agriculture. 



CHAPTER XX 



HOME ECONOMICS 



ALL education, as all industry and endeavor, should 
XjL finally lead to the art of good living. This demand 
naturally reaches to the home. To maintain good homes is 
one of the highest ideals either for individuals or nations. 
School training should not neglect this most important phase 
of education. 

Since so large a proportion of our children fail to reach 
the high school, it seems desirable that certain fundamental 
training in home economics shall be given in the grades. It 
has been estimated that twenty-five per cent, of food cost 
is to-day wasted because of inefficiency in the matter of buy- 
ing, preparing and serving foods. A similar waste obtains 
with reference to providing and caring for clothing. Un- 
questionably much sickness could be prevented if better 
sanitation were practised in the homes. 

The Aim — What is to be Accomplished 

High technical skill or expert knowledge is not to be ex- 
pected from the training in home economics that can be 
given in the grades. It is possible, however, to equip the 
pupils with certain concrete and important knowledge, to 
develop in them certain desirable attitudes, and to train 
them in certain practical skills which will go far toward 
making better homes,, 

Knowledge required. — 1. All children should be taught 
the untechnical but fundamental knowledge concerning the 

335 



336 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

values and sources of food materials. Added to this should 
be a knowledge of how to purchase, and (for girls) cook 
and serve the common foods. 

2. Both boys and girls should be given instruction con- 
cerning clothing, its various fabrics and their manufacture 
into articles for wear. This should also extend to the care 
of clothing. 

3. All should likewise be given a knowledge of shelter, 
or the materials of which houses are built and furnished, 
together with how to make the home sanitary, convenient 
and attractive. 

4. Also a knowledge of the value of money, and the busi- 
ness of the household, how to buy and sell in connection with 
home supplies, and how to keep simple records or accounts 
of receipts and expenditures. 

5. A knowledge of how to plan, decorate, furnish and 
keep a house in such a way as to secure the best harmonious 
and artistic effects from the resources available. 

Attitudes to be developed. — It is perhaps even more 
important, if possible, that right attitudes and standards 
shall be developed than that knowledge shall be gained with 
reference to the home. Such attitudes. as the following 
should be cultivated : 

1. A sense of personal responsibility and willingness on 
the part of girls to undertake the ordinary duties of the 
home and carry them out with high standards of perform- 
ance. A similar attitude of willingness on the part of boys 
to do their rightful part in carrying on the activities of the 
home and making it a pleasant and attractive place. 

2. A fundamental respect for work, and for the occupa- 
tions that have to do with supplying the economic neces- 
sities of life, or maintaining the comfort and welfare of the 
home. 

3. Interests that will lead to further reading and study 



HOME ECONOMICS 337 

with reference to all problems involved in the making of a 
good home. 

4. Pride in good housekeeping as expressed in neatness, 
order, cleanliness, and such other qualities as go into good 
housekeeping. A desire to make the home beautiful from 
the esthetic point of view. 

5. A tendency to saving and thrift such as will conserve 
the resources available for supporting the home. 

Skills to be trained. — The study of home economics 
should also result in the training of definite skills which 
should find their first application in the homes of the pupils. 

1. Skill in sweeping, cleaning and caring for the house, 
so that its appearance may be made attractive and its condi- 
tion sanitary. 

2. Skill in the preparation of simple dishes without reci- 
pes and in the serving of food so that it will be hygienic and 
attractive. Also skill in preparing a new dish from a recipe. 

3. Ability to do simple hand sewing neatly, to use the 
sewing-machine, and to cut, alter and fit simple garments 
from pattern. Also such skill in laundering as will make 
clothing clean and sanitary, and result in a saving of the 
fabrics. 

4. Skill in planning expenditures and making a budget for 
the home so that each department, as food, clothing, recrea- 
tion and the like, shall have its fair share of the amount 
available. 

5. Skill in keeping the person well-dressed, cleanly and 
attractive in appearance. 

The Material for Instruction 

Home economics, like agriculture, should be correlated 
with other subjects throughout the earlier grades. It will 
not claim a separate place on the program except in the sev- 



338 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

enth and eighth grades, and may then be limited to two les- 
sons a week. The work will center about three great topics, 
food, clothing and shelter. 

Subject-matter for the earlier grades. — The work 
should correlate directly with hygiene, language, geography 
and arithmetic. The material to be taught will consist of the 
simpler aspects of food, clothing and shelter. Such topics 
as the following may be taken up : 

Foods. 1. What foods the children like; what they eat; 
best foods for boys and girls; foods that are not good for 
children. 

2. Cereal foods; kinds; best are the cooked foods; how 
to serve. 

3. Why eggs are a good food; best ways to cook eggs; 
how to keep eggs fresh. 

4. Fruits as food ; why needed ; best fruits ; how prepared 
and served ; where fruits are raised. 

5. Why the body needs different kinds of foods (to build 
tissues, supply energy, regulate) ; the foods that supply pro- 
tein; that supply carbohydrates; that supply fats; that sup- 
ply mineral matter (only a general explanation at this point). 

6. A census of the vegetables produced in the home gar- 
dens; uses served by vegetable food; other vegetables that 
children might learn to eat ; preparation and serving of com- 
mon vegetables. 

7. Wheat as a food; uses of flour; where produced and 
milled ; bread making ; brown and white bread. 

8. Cooking utensils used by various peoples; kinds of 
stoves and fuels; primitive modes of cooking; why foods 
are cooked ; value of good cooking and serving; how to cook 
certain common foods ; setting the table, serving, etc. 

9. What boys and girls can do to help in producing, pre- 
paring and serving food in the home ; in the garden ; in the 
kitchen ; in the dining-room ; running errands. 



HOME ECONOMICS 339 

Clothing. 1. What we require of clothing ; must be com- 
fortable, adapted to our work, wear well, attractive in ap- 
pearance, warm in winter, cool in summer. 

2. Kinds of fabrics in clothing worn by the pupils ; where 
cotton comes from ; where woolen comes from ; where linen 
comes from ; where silk comes from ; uses of different fab- 
rics, and their care. 

3. The manufacture of cotton, woolen, silk and linen 
cloth ; making the material up into garments ; how the cloth 
is dyed. 

4. Keeping clothes clean; methods of laundering in dif- 
ferent countries; methods that save or injure clothing; 
washing machines ; soaps ; irons and ironing. 

5. Making of garments by hand and machine; learning 
different hand stitches and where they are used ; cutting by 
pattern ; mending worn garments. 

6. What boys and girls can do to help about their cloth- 
ing ; care in play ; unnecessary soiling ; hanging up when not 
in use ; sewing on missing buttons ; keeping brushed ; taking 
out stains or spots. 

Shelter. 1. Why we make our homes in houses; other 
forms of dwellings used by different peoples, such as caves, 
tepees, tents, snow huts, etc. 

2. Different articles of house furnishings; what house 
furnishings are used by other peoples, as Indians, Chinese, 
etc. 

3. Materials used in building our houses ; where the lum- 
ber, brick, stone, cement come from; how produced; names 
of occupations involved, as carpenter, mason, etc. 

4. Making the house attractive; suitable colors for ex- 
terior ; how rooms are made pleasing ; wall-papers ; paints ; 
woodwork, stained or painted ; draperies, etc. 

5. Care of house ; cleanliness by sweeping, dusting, scrub- 
bing, keeping windows clean ; keeping things in order ; pick- 



340 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

ing up papers, books, clothing, etc., and putting in proper 
place. 

6. How houses are heated ; heating used by other peoples ; 
where coal comes from; mining the coal; keeping houses 
ventilated; keeping the air moist in winter time; sleeping 
with open windows. 

7. How boys and girls can help in keeping house in order ; 
not scattering books, playthings, articles of clothing, etc.; 
cleaning feet on wet days ; helping with sweeping and dust- 
ing ; keeping the yard in good order. 

Seventh- and eighth-grade material. — The subject-mat- 
ter to be taught in home economics has not been so fully 
standardized as that in arithmetic, geography, etc. This 
is partly because the branch is still new, and partly because 
the instruction must be determined with reference to the time 
and equipment available. In general, the caution needs to 
be urged not to attempt too much at one time. It is usually 
better to carry on but one line of study, as foods, or cloth- 
ing, at a time. 

No detailed analysis of material need be given here. 
Excellent outlines are now supplied by state or district au- 
thority wherever the subject is taught. -The following sug- 
gests the general scope of the work which, as already indi- 
cated, must be adapted to local needs and conditions : 

Foods and Cooking. 1. A study of the kitchen, its ar- 
rangement, and best utensils ; care, cleaning, furnishing. 

2. The body's need of food ; different kinds required ; ar- 
ticles of diet that supply each element ; effect of cooking on 
foods ; how to cook the common foods ; stoves and fuel ; the 
fireless cooker; the refrigerator. 

3. Planning a meal; the balanced ration; economy in the 
use of foods; food preservation and storage. 

4. The serving of foods; setting the table; dining-roora 



HOME ECONOMICS 341 

arrangement ; courses ; clearing the table ; the duties of hos- 
tess ; of host. 

5. Home canning ; fruits ; vegetables ; meats. 

Textiles and sewing. 1. Equipment for sewing; the 
work-basket; the sewing-table; the sewing-machine. 

2. The different textiles ; production and history ; adapta- 
tion to different uses ; dyes and coloring ; how to select and 
buy materials ; taste in dress. 

3. Textiles for draperies ; rugs ; other home furnishings ; 
harmonies of color and effect. 

4. Hand sewing; stitches and where used; darning and 
mending; cutting garments; machine sewing; the complete 
making of simple garments. 

5. Care of textiles ; protection from moths, etc. ; launder- 
ing; equipment; hard and soft water; soaps; starch; wash- 
ing of woolen and silks ; ironing and folding. 

The home. 1. The house plan; study of different plans; 
materials ; finishes ; lawn and grounds. 

2. House hygiene; forms of dirt and their dangers; 
methods of cleaning; sweeping and dusting; elimination of 
rubbish. 

3. Heating and ventilating; forms of house heating; 
ways of ventilating ; humidity and how maintained. 

4. Personal cleanliness; bathroom and its arrangements; 
other conveniences. 

5. Home and health ; simple remedies ; the medicine case ; 
emergency treatments, bandaging, etc. ; the sick room and 
its care. 

6. Management; planning the day's work; division of 
labor; standards of order and neatness; work and recrea- 
tion. 

7. Financial management; income and expenditure; 
proper distribution of expenditure, as for food, clothing, 
gtc; the study of typical budgets; household accounts. 



342 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

8. Buying; personal versus telephone orders; buying of 
meats ; vegetables ; fruits ; clothing ; furniture ; fuel. 

9. Selling; establishing a market; packing and labeling; 
fruit ; vegetables ; eggs ; butter and milk, etc. 

Organisation and Presentation 

Domestic science, like agriculture, is a subject that must 
be made very concrete and its lessons carried at once into 
effect if they are to serve their purpose. There is small 
value in teaching our girls general and detached facts 
about food, clothing and the home, if it is to end in mere 
information. What we must do is to lead them to apply 
what they learn in doing with greater intelligence and skill 
to the things that need to be done in the home. 

Connecting school and home work. — There are three 
distinct but intimately related phases of instruction in 
domestic science: (1) the study of facts, principles, rules in 
the text-books, the recitation or the laboratory; (2) the 
application of these truths in the school laboratory under the 
direction of the teacher; and (3) the carrying of this knowl- 
edge and skill over into home practise.' The last of these 
should also be under the general supervision of the teacher 
(or special supervisor) wherever possible. Not until the in- 
struction has taken effect in real housekeeping and there 
become a standard of action is the responsibility of the 
teacher ended. 

This point of view suggests that the teacher's plan for in- 
struction must include recitation work, laboratory work, and 
home project work. After a topic has been discussed and 
demonstrated in class there should be definite home applica- 
tion made wherever possible. For example, a study of cereal 
foods may lead to one pupil planning, cooking and serving 
the breakfast cereals at her home for a week or a month, 



HOME ECONOMICS 343 

after which she makes a report of her problems and success. 
Another may do the same with vegetables, desserts or the 
whole meal. A third may take charge of sweeping and dust- 
ing or bed-making. Still another may be from a home 
where a new house is being built or furnished or an old 
house being repaired. All members of the class will be 
planning for new clothes. It is in connection with these 
practical and immediate interests that the best work (the 
only really valuable work) can be done. 

Laboratory work in the rural school. — The new con- 
solidated rural schools usually supply laboratory and equip- 
ment for domestic-science work equal to that in town 
schools. The one-room rural school is, however, at a serious 
disadvantage. Yet much excellent work is being done in 
many such schools. In some cases the district has equipped 
the basement for a laboratory ; in other cases the equipment 
must be used in the general room. The laboratory material 
should be supplied from the funds of the district, but this is 
not always done. Many rural teachers have had school 
entertainments to secure money for equipment. In other 
places the patrons have had a domestic-science "shower" 
for the school laboratory. The following minimum list of 
cooking utensils for a one-room school is recommended : x 

1 gal. double boiler $1.00 2 teaspoons $0.05 

1 qt. sauce pan 15 1 wooden spoon 10 

1 three-qt. enamel pan (for 1 can opener 10 

baking) 25 1 soap dish 05 

1 cover for enamel pan 05 1 grater 05 

1 tin tea kettle with copper 1 three-qt. mixing bowl 25 

bottom 75 2 two-qt. bowls at 15c 30 

2 dish pans at 25c 50 1 bread board 30 

2 baking pans at 15c 30 1 rolling pin 10 

2 agate pie tins at 10c 20 1 can for garbage (enamel 

1 flour sifter 10 pail and cover) 35 



From Iowa Report of Committee on Elimination, page 103. 



344 GLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

6 qt. jars 70 1 scrubbing brush .05 

6 small glass jars 30 1 vegetable brush .05 

1 pepper shaker 05 1 broom 25 

1 Dover egg beater 10 1 dust pan 10 

1 whip beater 05 1 doz. box labels (made by 

1 potato masher 10 pupils) 

1 sieve 05 Cheesecloth 

2 tin measuring cups 10 3 holders (made by pupils) 

1 dipper 10 1 oven cloth 

1 bread knife 35 1 coffee can for flour 

1 case knife 10 3 baking powder can tops 

2 paring knives at 20c 40 for cookie cutter. 

1 spatula 40 



2 tablespoons 05 Total $8.25 

Many rural schools are giving practical training in do- 
mestic science by serving hot noonday lunches. Where this 
is done, each child may bring his own dishes from home, or 
the school may purchase a supply such as the following : 

1^2 doz. teaspoons @ 30 cents per doz .$0.45 

1 y* doz. soup spoons @ 40 cents per doz 60 

\y 2 doz. forks @ 40 cents per doz 60 

iy> doz. plates @ 60 cents per doz 90 

iy doz. cups and saucers @ $1.20 per doz 1.80 

iy doz. glasses @ 50 cents per doz.- 75 

Total $5.10 

Probably the best stove for the rural school is the two- 
burner, blue flame kerosene. With the oven it costs from 
nine to ten dollars. A kitchen cabinet for utensils and a cup- 
board for dishes should also be supplied. The total equip- 
ment as here described can be bought for twenty to thirty 
dollars. 

Practical results. — The following extracts from letters 
written by Iowa rural teachers indicate the excellent re- 
sults that may be accomplished through the noonday lunch 
hour: 



HOME ECONOMICS 345 

"Our food was always satisfying and easily made. For 
example, if we were going to have mashed potatoes and 
gravy, several children were appointed to pare the potatoes. 
They did this at recess. Also, fire was started and water 
put on to heat. After school had been called, when I noticed 
that the water was boiling I would signal one of the children 
to put the potatoes to cook. As soon as this was done the 
child would go back to his seat and proceed with his lessons. 
At gravy-making time a different one was signaled to attend 
to the gravy. Another was called upon to mash the potatoes. 
Books were laid away at eleven fifty-five, desks cleaned and 
hands washed. Here was a chance for the smaller ones to 
help. Waste paper baskets must be passed, napkins distrib- 
uted, knives, forks and spoons placed. One of the older pu- 
pils served the potatoes directly upon the plates and then 
passed the plates to another pupil who served the gravy. 
The medium-aged children carried the served plates to the 
desks. This was continued until all were served. The cook- 
ing dishes were put to soak and all went to their seats. 

"When all were seated, eating began. When the meal was 
finished all excused themselves and if they had no work 
to do, they went out-of-doors to play. Those who had work 
had certain jobs to do such as gathering up dishes, remov- 
ing crumbs, getting the kitchen in readiness for washing 
dishes and so forth. We kept a posted list so that there was 
no mixing up on work. Generally I had four helpers. One 
for washing, two for drying and another to help with the 
sweeping. It was always necessary to sweep at noons. We 
used a sawdust sweeping compound. In this way we man- 
aged to eat and get everything in shape again before one 
o'clock. All the workers had from ten to twenty minutes at 
noon for play." 

"Besides the demonstration work I require my girls to 
keep home economics note-books, neatly written with pen 
and ink. All recipes, reference notes, etc., must be kept 
in these books. This work is easily correlated with their 
written language lessons, and it is a source of pleasure to my 
girls, for nearly all of them are greatly interested in 'keep- 
ing up their books/ 

"The work in domestic science carries over nicely with the 



346 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

home work of the children. I have required now and then, 
that the girls make some certain recipe at home over Satur- 
day. Nearly always they do this whether I ask it or not. 
When we make a good recipe at school, nearly always the 
pupils are anxious to try it at home. I think it has also 
brought the girls' home and school work closer together, 
for instance: One Friday afternoon we invited all the 
mothers of the district up to the schoolhouse. They came 
early, watched the preparation of the lunch by the girls, and 
were then served by them. The girls were all anxious to 
do their best." 

"I usually spend one hour Friday afternoon for sewing. 
The cooking is done mostly during recess, noon hour or 
before school in the morning. Soup has been a favorite with 
us. Corn soup, potato soup, tomato soup, vegetable soup 
and bean soup are mostly made. We made other things be- 
sides the soups. Rice, beans, beef, apples and cabbage were 
cooked. Of course we studied the composition of the dif- 
ferent foods, peculiarities, etc. Recipes were placed on the 
blackboard and pupils copied them. 

"I generally appointed two or three girls or boys to take 
complete charge of the noonday lunch. In this way each 
could be given actual practise in serving, washing dishes, etc. 

"The boys were as interested in the domestic science as 
the girls. 

"When a new dish was made at school the pupils would 
tell me the next morning about their experience making 
it at home the night before. The parents were very much 
interested. They furnished dishes, pans, kettles and sup- 
plies." 

Problem work. — The management and care of a home 
presents many very real and difficult problems. Training 
in domestic science should involve similar problems, typical 
of those constantly to be met in the home. These problems 
should be as genuine and immediate as possible and be as- 
signed for definite study, investigation and discussion. The 
following are suggestive of suitable problems : 



HOME ECONOMICS 347 

A certain class of vegetables or fruit is very high in cost ; 
provide substitutes. 

A house basement is damp ; find a remedy ; cost. 

The doctor has forbidden a certain person to eat meat; 
plan diet. 

How to keep humidity of heated rooms right in winter. 

The ventilation of a sleeping-room ; of the school room. 

A pest of flies are troubling a certain home ; locate cause 
and remedy. 

A house is to be remodeled ; make plans. 

How to dispose of refuse and sewage where there is no 
sewer. 

Given a certain amount to spend for dress ; how to divide 
it. 

A complete list of furnishings for a bed ; winter ; summer. 

The kind of rugs to buy. 

A floor or woodwork needs refmishing ; material ; colors ; 
cost. 

Keeping an itemized account of household expenses. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. What is the law, if any, covering the teaching of domestic 
science in your state? Is the law being carried out in practise? Is 
your school doing its share? Is it seeking to lead? 

2. Have you adequate equipment for teaching domestic science? 
If not, have you considered means for adding to it? Inmost commu- 
nities there is no trouble in raising funds either (1) through direct 
appropriation by the school board, (2) by solicitation by pupils and 
teacher, (3) by contributions of utensils, etc., by patrons, or (4) by 
means of a school entertainment. 

3. What plan should be taken to pay for current supplies used in 
the laboratory or for noonday lunches where there is no distinct 
fund available; shall (1) each pupil furnish certain articles, (2) each 
contribute a small amount of money, (3) a fund be raised by an 
entertainment, or (4) some other plan be used? Work out a state- 
ment of advantages and difficulties for each plan. 

4. What method do j^ou employ to interest the boys in the 
phases of domestic science which they should study? How do you 
cultivate the cooperation of the parents? Have you had a patrons' 



348 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

luncheon prepared and served by the pupils? What are the advan- 
tages of such a plan? 

5. What books, bulletins, etc., on domestic science has your 
school library? Do you keep the library growing? Do you use it? 
Do the children take the material home so that the parents may be- 
come interested in it? In what ways is your instruction improving 
the home life of your community ? 

REFERENCES 

Trowbridge, The Home School. Houghton Mifflin Co., New 
York. 

Gates, The County School of To-morrow. General Education 
Board, New York. 

Kinne and Cooley, Shelter and Clothing. Macmillan Co., New 
York. 

Cornell University Bulletin, The Laundry. Ithaca, N. Y. 

Talbot, House Sanitation. Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston. 

Kinne and Cooley, Foods and Household Management. Macmil- 
lan Co., New York. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 142, 175, 270, 43, 345, 459, 565, 389, 249, 
121, 413, 363, 391, 128, 359, 256, 28, 342, 185. (All free.) U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 



Part Three: Class-Room Management 



CHAPTER XXI 

MANAGEMENT AND THE RECITATION 

THE value of good management is more and more be- 
ing recognized in business and industrial concerns. Ev- 
ery effort is made to eliminate waste of effort, time and 
material. The scientific expert with his stop-watch dic- 
tates what movements shall go into the laying of a brick 
or the packing of a box. The farmer with his scales decides 
which cow shall go to the dairy and which to the block. We 
pay fabulous salaries to men who can so manage a business 
that the largest returns shall be realized from its activities. 
The same necessity for good management exists in teach- 
ing; for the best of instruction may be defeated by poor 
management in the class room. The problems of class- 
room management center about two great aims : ( 1 ) to 
supply the most favorable conditions under which the work 
of instruction shall go on ; (2) so to direct the associations 
and procedure of the class room that they shall in them- 
selves prove a means of education and development. While 
these two aims should never be separated in fact, and need 
not be for our discussion, they should both be kept dis- 
tinctly in mind in managing the class room. 

Measures of Good Management 

What are the objective measures by which a teacher 
may judge the success of his own management, or by which 

U9 



' 350 CLASS-ROOM METHOD' AND MANAGEMENT 

he should be judged by superintendent or principal ? What 
are the characteristics of a well-managed recitation? 

All activities must advance the work in hand. — This is 
the test that the business concern would employ; it is the 
test teachers should employ. If one studies the activities 
going on in a poorly-managed office, store or shop, he will 
note that there are too much confusion, too much busyness 
that does not count, too many distractions, and too little 
driving directly ahead for results. In a well-managed 
concern all is different; none of this futile waste is in evi- 
dence, but all moves forward with ordered precision and 
effectiveness. Precisely the same principles apply to the 
class room. In the poorly-managed recitation there may be 
much of life, even of enthusiasm, but there is too much 
loss of time and effort, too much aimless activity, too little 
arriving at definite results. 

In the well-managed class room all moves smoothly and 
without friction. The observer would realize that a care- 
fully-conceived plan was being carried out, but would be 
unable to discover the controlling mechanism. There is 
an absence of friction. There is no loss of time. There 
are no unnecessary distractions. There' may be more or 
less of noise and bustle; that will depend on the nature 
of the work. For example, a class in laboratory work or 
shop work can not maintain the quiet of the ordinary reci- 
tation room. Nor is this necessary. This is the test : Is all 
that is going on advancing the purpose of the recitation? 

If this can be answered in the affirmative, the manage- 
ment is in so far good. If it must be answered in the nega- 
tive the teacher should at once go to work on the problem 
involved. The pupils can not too early be brought to see 
that the school is their business, and that the same principles 
must apply in the class room as in business outside — each 
one must do his share to make the business a success. None 



MANAGEMENT AND THE RECITATION 351 

must, through inattention, mischief, or any other defect of 
behavior, lower the output of the school concern any more 
than he would be allowed to do so in a business concern. 

The application of this simple and obvious principle will 
do away with the necessity for a complex and extended set 
of rules. One boy, when he was rebuked by his teacher 
for some act, said he did not know it was against the rules. 
The teacher replied that there was no rule on the matter, 
and asked him whether he thought such an act helped or 
hindered the work of the school. He readily agreed that 
from this point of view his act was wrong, and by so do- 
ing committed himself to better conduct. Many school 
offenses should be judged, not on the usual moral grounds, 
but by the standard of promoting or injuring the business of 
the class room. 

Motives for control to be largely subjective, — The best 
control is self-control. The best-managed class room will 
therefore afford the largest possible freedom for self-direc- 
tion that can be successfully employed. This proposition 
does not favor lax control, slack government, or weak 
discipline. Far from it. Every wise teacher has for the 
first plank in his platform of management high standards of 
order and a rigid meeting of reasonable requirements. The 
question turns on how this condition is to be brought about. 
Far better bring it about by the teacher's direct authority, 
and even by punishment, than not to secure control and 
order in the school. But better yet if the pupils develop 
such an interest in the school, such standards of personal 
conduct, and such loyalty to the work of their group that 
each governs his own conduct for the good of all. 

The school or class room that does not place a consider- 
able burden of personal responsibility on the pupil is cheat- 
ing him out of a part of his education. For to be obliged 
constantly to find the warrant for one's conduct in some au- 



352 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

thority outside o^ himself is to leave him in some degree un- 
developed in his moral nature and a slave to circumstances. 
And self-control, like any other power, develops through its 
use. 

This does not mean that the teacher shall at any time 
cease to be a factor in the control of the school. It rather 
means that his control should become increasingly indirect. 
It is easy enough for any person of intelligence and force, 
especially with the authority of the law behind him, to con- 
trol a school by direct compulsion. But to control it by 
stimulating the pupils' interest in achievement, by arous- 
ing their better natures, by appealing to their sense of 
justice, loyalty and fair play — in short, to put the reins of 
conduct into their own hands, but make sure at the same 
time that they handle them aright, this is an altogether more 
difficult task. An objective military regime of class-room 
control is easy — it may even be cheap; a subjective moral 
regime is difficult to set up and maintain, but it bears rich 
fruit in character. 

The Spirit of the Class Room 

The importance of the group spirit can not be over- 
estimated in class-room management. Public opinion is one 
of the strongest forces operating in society. Let the spirit 
of the class room be good, and details of conduct will cause 
relatively little trouble. But let the attitude be bad, let 
loyalty to the school and the teacher be at a low ebb, let the 
bonds of class spirit be weak, and many of the best and 
strongest incentives are lost. 

Cultivation of class-room spirit. — Pupils often fail to 
realize the identity of interests between themselves and the 
teacher. There is not a little hidden tension, if not overt 
antagonism* between teacher and class in many schools. 



MANAGEMENT AND THE RECITATION 353 

The children often think of themselves as on one side and 
the teacher on the other. If they can play tricks, evade 
requirements, or oppose regulations without getting caught 
or punished, they feel that they have achieved a victory. 
This attitude, so greatly to be lamented, is probably in most 
instances to be blamed against unfortunate school experi- 
ences of the children rather than laid to any natural antag- 
onism inherent in their own natures. The real inner ten- 
dency of most children is toward cooperation. Given the 
right incentives and conditions, and they will as devotedly 
work with the teacher as they will heartily work against him 
under different conditions. 

It is all-important that the teacher shall clearly realize 
this encouraging truth. For it is a much more inspiring 
task to set one's, self to win loyalty and cooperation that 
are lying ready, even if fallow, than to overcome natively 
inherent opposition. The teacher who has an abiding faith 
in human nature will also win a thousandfold better re- 
sponse from children than one who is naturally suspicious. 
On the whole, one finds in others, even if they be children, 
very much what he expects and looks for. 

The spirit of the surroundings. — No small factor in 
creating the class-room spirit is the room itself. More than 
one teacher has found the spirit of a class thoroughly trans- 
formed by the class being moved from a dingy, disagreeable, 
oppressive room to pleasant, attractive and artistic surround- 
ings. Good equipment, clean floors and well-decorated 
walls, good pictures, and whatever other features will com- 
pel admiration and stimulate good feeling are sure to be 
reflected in the spirit of the class. Let one who doubts this 
statement himself try living for a time in a house that is 
undergoing repairs or that for any other reason has things 
strewn about in topsyturvy fashion and is none too clean. 
If the spirit of the surroundings does not find expression 



354 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

in his own attitude he is a rare exception to a common rule 
of experience. There is a deep moral value in the esthetic 
that is too often overlooked in school surroundings. 

Influence of the community spirit. — It is an American 
custom to speak out unreservedly in criticism of any pub- 
lic act or institution that may not please. Such criticism, 
if well considered and directed at real faults, is helpful. 
Irresponsible criticism, or faultfinding based on mere whim 
or biased report, may often do much harm. The public 
school suffers from too much criticism of this irrational 
type. The child goes home with a grievance or a complaint 
and the parents are outspoken and often bitter in their criti- 
cism of the teacher or the school. The bit of poison planted 
in the child's mind by thoughtless criticism can not but viti- 
ate in some degree the atmosphere of the room to which 
he belongs. 

One of the insistent problems confronting the teacher, 
therefore, is to have his work stand well in the community. 
This is not to be accomplished by any shallow social acts 
or pleasing devices aimed to attract public acclaim. It is, 
rather, so fully, honestly and completely to enter into the 
spirit and life of the community that the response toward 
both one's work and himself is of a spontaneous loyalty, 
such as any community stands ready to give to skilled effort 
and unselfish devotion. 

Interest and class-room spirit.— -The only true and per- 
manent class-room spirit must spring from interest in the 
work. Only as one's tasks are congenial and satisfying does 
he give himself loyally and whole-heartedly to their ac- 
complishment. The class who are at outs with a certain 
study, and feel it but an empty grind, can hardly be in good 
spirit while working or reciting upon it. No small part of 
the trouble caused by mischievous or antagonistic pupils 



MANAGEMENT AND THE RECITATION 355 

can unquestionably be traced to the fact that they "don't 
like" grammar, or "don't see anything to" literature. 

The problem is one of being able to command the deeper 
enthusiasms. More than one unruly boy has been turned 
into a loyal supporter of the school through his newly-found 
interest in manual training, agriculture, current history or 
some other subject. To develop the right school spirit we 
must get hold of the work interest of our pupils. Experi- 
ence has many times shown that this is the only anchorage 
strong enough to hold the deeper loyalty either of children 
or adults. 

The influence of leadership.— The influence of leader- 
ship is a school factor always to be reckoned with. With- 
out any election or appointment to the position, certain pu- 
pils naturally step into the place of leader and impose their 
attitudes and ideals upon their followers* Every class 
group has one or more such leaders. Happy is the teacher 
who can, through his own greater power of leadership, 
cause the leaders of their groups to lead them in the right 
direction. The wise teacher will know from the start that 
school-room misdemeanors and disorders which involve 
considerable numbers of pupils usually have their storm 
center in the suggestion or control exercised by some mis- 
chievous leader. Once this source of disturbance is dis- 
covered and turned into a supporter of the school regime 
the battle is largely won. 

The Personal Factor in Class-Room Management 

Teachers probably differ fully as much in executive, or 
managerial, ability as in intellectual attainment. Some per- 
sonalities naturally command respect and cooperation, while 
others seem to invite antagonism and disloyalty. 



356 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Decision and poise of character. — Half unaware to 
themselves children rather unerringly read the inner nature 
and characteristics of their teachers. One boy remarked that 
he would rather have Miss A scold him for half an hour 
than to have Miss B give him one good look. On being 
asked what was so dreadful about Miss B's look, he said, 
"Oh, she doesn't look cross, but you just feel that she doesn't 
expect you to do that again." Without understanding it 
himself this boy had sensed the difference between a vacil- 
lating nature and a personality secure in its poise and de- 
cision. 

Poise, or decision, is worth while in itself, and should be 
cultivated even though it were not needed in the school 
room. This quality of personality does not come by chance ; 
it rests on a sense of mastery and power. One who is not 
certain of himself can never impress others with his poise, 
for he will not possess it. Let the teacher who feels the lack 
of poise and decision master his problems ; let him feel that 
he is in command of his subject; that he can teach it ef- 
fectively ; that he understands his pupils ; that he knows 
how to govern as well as teach — let him reach the self- 
confidence that comes from certainty, and there will be 
no trouble about his poise. Decision will then radiate from 
every act and attitude. 

On the other hand, let any teacher doubt his ability to 
cope with the problems that confront him, let him feel un- 
certain of his mastery and power, and the crippling effects 
of his attitude will be revealed in his very bearing and man- 
ner. The way to develop poise and impressiveness is to get 
mastery! 

Uniformity of demands. — This quality is closely re- 
lated to the one just discussed. To be strict to-day and 
easy to-morrow is sooner or later to forfeit something of the 
respect, if not of the good will, of the school. In spite of 



MANAGEMENT AND THE RECITATION 357 

the fact that teachers are human, and that brains do get 
fagged and nerves frayed, it pays to do one's best to rise 
above one's moods or whims and be the same from day to day. 
It was no great compliment that a certain student paid his 
teacher when he warned a classmate about to enter the 
room which he himself had just left, "Look sharp, the 'old 
man's* nerves are on a tear to-day !" 

Classes themselves are variable. They have their good 
and their bad days, and need to be judged accordingly. 
Probably every teacher has also observed the tendency of 
schools to "run down" near the end of a term or just be- 
fore a holiday or some special event. The teacher's ideal 
should be to equalize all these fluctuations in his school by 
an increase of his own power, inspiration and effectiveness. 
These must act as the governor acts on an engine to steady 
its motion if the school machinery is to run effectively. 

The futility of scolding. — Scolding is a mistake. It 
has little or no place in the class room. It may temporarily 
work on some particular occasion, but the reaction from its 
effects is generally costly to the respect of the teacher if in- 
deed not to his authority. Scolding has a strong tendency 
to grow into a habit, and then it is far worse than useless. 
The scolder usually says more than he intends and far more 
than could do any good. Not infrequently indignation in- 
creases with its expression, and the mild reproof grows into 
a tirade, which is remembered with shame and humiliation. 

The following incident, which came under the writer's 
observation, illustrates the fate of the scolder: A group 
of girls just graduated from high school were discussing 
their teachers, and commenting on their characteristics. One 
of the group remarked: "Now, there is our principal; 
maybe you think we didn't make things interesting for him ! 
We girls used to meet together evenings to devise ways to 
torment him." On being asked why they had g pick at this 



358 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

particular teacher, she replied : "Oh, we really had nothing 
against him; we only wanted to see him 'perform/ and he 
never disappointed us. We were willing to take any sort 
of scolding just to get him started upon a tirade." 

Scolding is bad from another point of view. It deals in 
negatives, which are on the whole not helpful or inspiring. 
Children need occasionally to be told of their faults. They 
need correction. They may even require punishment. But 
they should not be nagged. They should, as a rule, be led 
rather than driven. They should be fed on positives, rather 
than on negatives. 

One of the first qualities the teacher should cultivate, 
therefore, is the ability to be strongly insistent without un- 
due sharpness ; to be stern without being "cross" ; to be en- 
tirely immovable and severe when occasion demands it, 
without blustering, threatening or losing the temper. In 
short, to be so thoroughly sure of himself and secure in his 
self-control that he is justified in exercising control over 
others. 

Class-Room Routine 

By class-room routine is meant the set of movements 
and activities involved in calling and dismissing classes, 
passing and collecting materials, rising when reciting, re- 
sponding to the roll-call, or doing any other of the many 
things which must frequently be performed by all. All of 
these common movements which include the whole class 
should rigidly follow a definite plan or routine. 

Routine saves time friction. — Every skilful manager, 
whether in factory, office or school, uses a fixed routine 
wherever it will not interfere with individual initiative or 
efficiency. Such a system saves time, eliminates friction and 
confusion, and reduces the strain on attention. 

The teacher should from the first day have a simple but 



Management and the jibcitation 359 

definite plan for carrying out each part of the mechan- 
ics of the class room. The signals for calling and dismiss- 
ing the class should always be the same, and should be fol- 
lowed to the letter. For example, if the class are to stand at 
a given signal, then none should be permitted to loiter, nor 
to start ahead of the others. If all are to remain standing 
until the last one has reached his position, then none should 
be allowed to be seated until the right moment. If papers 
are to be handed in folded in a certain way, then no other 
way should be accepted. If they are to be collected in a 
certain order in the class, then this precise order should be 
insisted upon. In short, it is impossible to be too insistent 
on these seemingly small matters. The difference between 
good management and poor management often turns on just 
such factors. 

Routine and habit.— Some may feel that requirements 
of such rigid sort savor too much of the military and have 
no place in the school. This objection overlooks the fact 
that one of the chief features of the child's education is 
training in obedience. One of the besetting weaknesses of 
children (and adults?) is carelessness. "I forgot," "I didn't 
mean to," "I didn't think," are all evidences of need of 
training in obedience to requirements of some kind. The 
child who has not learned to follow directions, and follow 
them to the letter, has been deprived of an important part 
of his training. 

Nor is the following of a reasonable class-room routine 
any hardship to the children. It is as easy in the end to do 
a thing right as wrong. It is as easy to learn to do it each 
time in the same way as to be haphazard about it. Children 
of elementary school age easily lend themselves to routine 
training. They like to march in order, perform drills to- 
gether, or carry out other group movements. They are at 
the best age for forming habits of accuracy, promptness and 



360 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

cooperation. A good school routine, kindly but firmly car- 
ried out, is one of the best methods of training such habits. 
Routine a measure of the teacher.— While there are 
many other factors besides routine in good management, 
there is none by which a teacher's skill in management can 
better be judged. The chance visitor who looks in upon a 
class in which all the mechanical activities are seemingly 
moving without direction or attention, but are moving nev- 
ertheless like clockwork, is justified in expecting other 
phases of management to show equal efficiency. On the 
other hand, if the class lacks esprit de corps, if the pupils 
saunter up and drop into the recitation seats at will, if they 
have no orderly way of responding to signals, if they have 
no common method of doing the same frequently required 
things, then it is fair to conclude that the teacher lacks ex- 
ecutive ability. For the standards of the teacher are finally 
reflected in the management of the class room. 

Physical Conditions in the Class Room 

Efficient class-room management does not overlook the 
physical conditions. These are important both for their 
bearing on the success of the recitation and for their rela- 
tion to health. Beyond doubt much of the physical lassi- 
tude and mental dulness observed in many classes come 
from the unhygienic conditions of the class room. No small 
proportion of the colds, sore throats, or even worse troubles, 
are blamable to the same source. 

Fresh air to breathe. — No teacher needs to be instructed 
in the evil effects on both mind and body which come from 
breathing vitiated air. Knowledge of such facts is a com- 
monplace. Yet our school rooms are not always well venti- 
lated. The teacher has many things demanding his attention, 



MANAGEMENT AND THE BEGITATIQN 361 

and the air of the room may become stale or overheated or 
too dry without being noticed. We all know much more 
hygiene than we put into practise, even where the interests 
are not so vital as in a room full of children. 

Good management will insist ( 1 ) that the air in the class 
room be in circulation, either from an adequate ventilating 
system or by means of open windows so managed as to pro- 
tect from direct drafts ; (2) that the temperature be from 
sixty-five to seventy degrees; (3) that the heated air in 
winter shall have a sufficient amount of moisture. To make 
sure on these points, the room should be equipped with a 
thermometer so placed as to register fairly for the entire 
room and a hygrometer of some simple type for the record- 
ing of atmospheric moisture. These instruments are fully 
as necessary as charts and blackboards, and should at once 
be added to rooms where they are lacking. 

Freedom from dust. — The sweeping and dusting of 
many school rooms are hardly up to the standards of good 
housekeeping. Often the floors are of soft lumber, with 
wide cracks between the boards, and no provision made for 
frequent and thorough cleaning. Blackboards and erasers 
are not infrequently laden with chalk dust. Dusty air is 
fully as dangerous to health and vitality as rebreathed air. 
Whether the teacher is directly responsible for the cleanli- 
ness of the room, therefore, as is still true in many rural 
schools, or whether a janitor is employed, it is a part of the 
teacher's business to see that the room is clean and free 
from dust. 

This will necessitate the use of sweeping compounds, 
suitable brooms, oiled dusting cloths, etc., of as good qual- 
ity as would be found in a modern home. To secure these 
things and see that they are properly used is one of the 
teacher's problems as manager. 



362 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

The pupils' standard of cleanliness and order.— -Every 
pupil should come to school clean and neat in person and 
clothing. Nothing less than this should be tolerated, both 
because of the interests of the school as a whole and for 
the good of the pupils directly concerned. A rigid require- 
ment of orderly desks, well-arranged books and materials, 
and freedom from litter on the floor should be relentlessly 
enforced. Good housekeeping should be the rule, and the 
standard should first of all be set, of course, by the teacher 
in the care of his own desk, materials and belongings. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Are you troubled with mischief in your recitations? If so, 
can you locate the leader of the trouble? What do you judge is 
the cause of such mischief, lack of interest in the work, lack of 
class loyalty, lack of respect for the teacher, or some other con- 
dition ? 

2. Are your class-room signals simple and reasonable? Are 
they well followed? Do you find certain pupils who are constantly 
careless on such matters? If so, what measures have you taken to 
cure this fundamental defect of character? 

3. As you consider the motives which control in your class-room 
order, do you think they originate chiefly in your command, or in 
the attitude and good will of the pupils? Contrast the ultimate 
effects on character of governing one's conduct because of an ob- 
jective requirement, and governing it because of the demands of 
his own inner nature; i. e., of being good because one has to or 
because he wants to. 

4. Compare the spirit of your class room with that of other 
class rooms you know. With your own ideal for it. What fac- 
tors do you judge are necessary in order to improve the spirit? 

5. Estimate your own poise and decision. Do you feel securely 
in command of your class-room problems? What effect has a feel- 
ing of inadequacy on your happiness? On producing fatigue and 
worn nerves? Do you worry? If so, analyze the elements that go 
into a condition of worry, and decide whether any good results. 
Do you scold f 



MANAGEMENT AND THE RECITATION 363 



REFERENCES 

Bagley, School Discipline. Macmillan Co., New York. 

Rapeer (Ed.), Educational Hygiene. Scribner's, New York. 

Strayer, A Brief Course in the Teaching Process. Macmillan 
Co., New York. 

Dewey, The Schools of To-morrow. E. P. Dutton & Co., New 
York. 

Betts, The Recitation. Houghton Mifflin Co., New York. 

Dresslar, School Hygiene. Macmillan Co., New York. 






CHAPTER XXII 

CLASS-ROOM MANAGEMENT AND MORAL CONDUCT 

EVERY thoughtful teacher knows that the final outcome 
of education must be character, else the whole process 
has been a failure. And character is to be defined in pos- 
itive instead of negative terms. Our youth must be trained 
not only to be good, but to be good for something. They 
must not only be able to resist temptation, but be willing to 
stand, aggressively if need be, for the right. They must not 
only know what constitutes high moral standards, but be 
so led in daily practise that such standards become the habit 
of their natures. 

All the activities and relations of the school should lead 
to moral ends. Each study should bear its share of the 
responsibility. The personal influence of the teacher should 
contribute its part. The associations of pupils in their work 
and play should bring out moral lessons and values. The 
management of those class-room relations discussed in the 
preceding chapter will have a moral bearing. Certain other 
features of the class room lie even closer to the development 
of character; these will be briefly discussed in the present 
chapter. 

Misdemeanors 

As long as there are schools and children there will be 
misdemeanors. While there are misdemeanors there will 
be penalties. Dealing with the matter of misdemeanors and 
their punishment constitutes a very real and trying problem 
in many schools. 

364 



CLASS-ROOM MANAGEMENT AND MORAL CONDUCT 365 

What constitutes a misdemeanor. — Misdemeanors in 
school may roughly be divided into two broad classes: (1) 
acts that in themselves are not wrong, but which hinder the 
work of the school; (2) acts that are in themselves funda- 
mentally immoral. Familiar examples of the first type are 
whispering, writing notes, playing practical jokes, distract- 
ing the attention of others, being inattentive. Examples of 
the second type are bad language, dishonesty in work, de- 
stroying the property of others, lying or deceiving, stealing, 
etc. 

From the beginning children should be brought to see the 
distinction in these two classes of acts : the first is wrong be- 
cause such acts injure the class by hindering the best work ; 
the second is wrong just because it is wrong, anywhere and 
all the time. This simple distinction, without any ethical 
analysis, is easily grasped by children, and it helps them to 
understand and see the justice of necessary regulations 
which otherwise might appear very arbitrary. A fourth- 
grade boy, when rebuked by his teacher for whispering to 
a neighbor, said with great earnestness, "Why, there isn't 
any harm in whispering!" The wise teacher answered, 
"Not the least harm the way you mean it, Tom ; but does it 
help or hinder our work ?" "I suppose of course it hinders," 
said Tom. This little incident may not have transformed 
Tom into an angelic pupil who from that time on needed no 
further attention to his conduct, but it did give him a valu- 
able moral distinction. It broadened his idea of class-room 
rights and wrongs. 

The value of confession. — A child who has confessed 
a wrong act has already gone far toward its atonement. 
Especially is this true if the confession is voluntary and 
prompted by the child's own conscience ; for such a confes- 
sion quickens the moral sense and strengthens self-control. 

[The pressure of group opinion is a strong incentive to 



366 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

confession when it can successfully be brought to bear on 
the right side. In a certain school a boy had during an inter- 
mission accidentally broken a window while the teacher was 
out of the room. The other boys at once crowded about Joe 
with the question, "What are you going to do about it, Joe ?" 
Joe answered, "She won't know who did it. I'll not tell." 
"But you've got to tell," the group argued. "You know 
Miss Jones told us we might play in here if we would be 
careful not to break anything. You broke it, now you've 
got to tell 1" And Joe's group made him tell. It would have 
been better if Joe had had the moral strength to decide for 
himself that he must confess, but since he had not, it was 
well for him to learn the justice and compulsion of public 
opinion. Confession compelled by the teacher, even, is bet- 
ter than harboring a concealed wrong ; but such a confession 
is often construed by the child as a necessary yielding to au- 
thority, and hence loses much of its moral effect. 

Accusation versus confession. — The teacher should be 
very sure of his facts before he accuses a child of a wrong 
act. An unjust accusation may leave a wound that is long 
in healing, and is sure to cause the teacher a loss of respect 
and loyalty. And even if the teacher is" sure of his case 
against the child it is still a thousand times better to lead 
the child to a confession. A culprit confronted by an ac- 
cusation, or even by a threatening question, may in his fear 
and weakness tell a lie. If the teacher follows up the ac- 
cusation or question with others still more insistent the 
child, having lied once, may easily lie a dozen times in suc- 
cession, through seeking to corroborate his first statement. 
Beyond doubt many children are unintentionally driven into 
lying and deceiving by unwise grillings over minor misde- 
meanors. Much practise in sharp trickery and skilful 
evasion may be actually forced upon children by lack of 
wisdom in handling their faults. 



CLASS-ROOM MANAGEMENT AND MORAL CONDUCT 367 

Shall we then say that children must never be confronted 
with a direct accusation of their misdemeanors ? This does 
not follow. But before such accusation is made the teacher 
must be sure of his case. He must then present the accusa- 
tion in such a way as to allow no denial or evasion. But it 
is still better, as we have said above, to bring the child to 
the victory of a confession. 

One teacher says, "Tom, did you break that window ?" — 
"Now don't deny it !" — "Don't you know it's wrong to lie ?" 
— "Now you might just as well own up." And poor Tom 
keeps getting deeper and deeper in the mire of falsehood and 
denial. A wiser teacher says pleasantly to Tom, "Tom, I 
wish you would tell me how it was about that window. I'm 
sorry you happened to break it." Thus encouraged, Tom 
will find it relatively easy to tell the truth. And even if 
he does not at once confess, no harm has been done the 
case by asking for Tom's version of the accident. The prin- 
ciple can not be too strongly emphasized that the success- 
ful disciplinarian is not the teacher who can break the child's 
false testimony down and fix the wrong act upon him in 
spite of denials. The good disciplinarian is the one who 
can save the culprit from falsehood and help him achieve 
a moral victory. 

Shall children tell on one another. — A writer in The 
Outlook propounded the following very simple problem: 1 
Two boys, called Bad and Good were one day out by the 
schoolhouse. Bad said to Good, "I'm going to throw this 
snowball and break the window." He did so. The teacher 
asked each pupil separately who broke the window. No one 
confessed. The teacher then asked the whole school to- 
gether who broke the window. No one answered. The 
problem to be answered is (1) What should Good have 



iH. E. Hall, The Outlook, Jan. 11, 1913. 



368 CLASS-KOOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT. 

done? (2) Should the teacher have asked who broke the 
window? 

This simple moral problem aroused so great an interest 
that The Outlook received many hundreds of letters from 
men and women in all occupations — homekeepers, teachers, 
lawyers, judges, statesmen, ministers, laborers. The inter- 
esting point is that the writers differed radically on both 
questions. Some claimed that Good should have told on 
Bad, and others insisted that he should not. Some thought 
the teacher was right in asking the questions she put to the 
pupils and the school, and others thought she was unwise. 

It is not our purpose here to attempt dogmatically to set- 
tle the disputed questions. Where opinions differ so widely 
the truth can not all be on one side. Certain points, how- 
ever, would seem to be reasonably easy to reach agreement 
upon: We do not want our pupils to be tale-bearers. No 
one likes the tell-tale, and he is sure if the habit becomes 
chronic to develop a bad spirit toward other people. Pupils 
should therefore not be encouraged to report minor misde- 
meanors upon one another. Teachers should not ask for in- 
formation that would require petty tale-bearing. 

On the other hand, children should not be allowed to 
develop a false sense of loyalty to their group which leads 
them to shield one guilty of a grave offense. The spirit to 
be cultivated is loyalty to the common good before loyalty 
to the individual member. Children should therefore be 
encouraged and expected to report such offenses as endanger 
the morality or welfare of the school. Furthermore, they 
should develop the moral courage to tell on a fellow pupil 
when they think they ought. 

Better than to tell on the culprit, however, is, as suggested 
in the preceding section, for his classmates to bring him to 
confession. One teacher wisely handled a difficult matter 
as follows : Coming into her sixth-grade room after an ab- 



CLASS-ROOM MANAGEMENT AND MORAL CONDUCT 369 

sence and finding a piece of statuary broken, she said quietly 
to the pupils : "Is there any one who would like to tell me 
that he broke the statue ?" No one volunteered. Then she 
said to the school, "I think a good many of you must know 
who broke the statue. You remember it was given us by 
a friend of the school, who I am sure will be grieved that 
we have broken it. I think that those of you who know 
how the accident happened should see that the ones who are 
to blame make the loss good. That would be fair and would 
look much better for our class." There were no commands 
and no threats ; only an appeal to justice and class loyalty. 
And it worked. That evening a delegation appeared at the 
teacher's desk and the spokesman said: "Harry and Mary 
(who were members of the delegation), wanted you to know 
that they broke the statue, but we were all more or less to 
blame; for we were chasing one another about the room. 
So we think that we all ought to help pay for the loss." This 
indeed was a true victory for all concerned, and one that 
ought to be more often duplicated in school-room discipline 
than it is. 

Punishment of Misdemeanors 

A lesson which every child should thoroughly learn is that 
disobedience to law brings punishment. Nature early forces 
this lesson upon the attention of the individual. The babe 
touches the lamp and is burned. The boy eats the forbidden 
green apples and pays the penalty of pain and bitter doses. 
True, there are sentimentalists who say that children should 
never be punished by parents or teachers, for fear that it 
may hinder the child's "natural" development. But this posi- 
tion is contradicted both by common sense and experience. 
The child's natural tendencies may lead him very far astray. 
The great thing is to be sure that we punish for the right 
things in the right way. The following four kinds of pun- 



370 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

ishment may be considered: (1) impulsive, or resentful, 
punishment; (2) retributive, or revengeful, punishment; 
(3) deterrent, or protective, punishment; (4) educative, or 
reformatory, punishment. 

Impulsive, or resentful, punishment. — No small propor- 
tion of the punishment given children in the home, and, less 
often, in the school, is the result of unconsidered impulse, 
irritation or resentment. The parent or the teacher hap- 
pens to be tired and irritated by annoying difficulties met in 
the day's work, and at an inopportune moment a child com- 
mits a fault. The punishment that follows is often calcu- 
lated to relieve the emotional tension of the one who does 
the correcting rather than to deal rationally with the fault 
itself. Witness the fact that a prank played by a child 
to-day may be taken as a joke, while to-morrow it may bring 
sharp rebuke and punishment. It is hardly necessary to 
urge that punishment of this type is a mistake and a failure 
in the upbringing of a child, whether it be practised in the 
home or the school. The child easily understands that it is 
more the whim of the one in authority than the nature of 
the deed that determines the punishment, and so does not 
connect it with justice or the need of reform. The teacher 
should be very sure in administering punishment that the 
hidden motive back of it is not some emotional irritation of 
his own. 

Retributive, or revengeful, punishment. — The older idea 
of punishment was for revenge and retribution. If one did 
wrong, of course he must suffer in order that the one 
wronged might get even. An eye for an eye, and a tooth for 
a tooth. Suffering imposed must be paid for with an equal 
amount of suffering. Thus do the "blood feuds" among 
primitive peoples arise, and thus are they kept up. Thus 
are the demands of a cruel and abstract "justice" satisfied. 

Such a concept of punishment has no place in the govern- 1 



CLASS-ROOM MANAGEMENT AND MORAL CONDUCT 371 

ment of a school. Individuals, large and small, will prob- 
ably long retain hidden deep in their natures a tendency to 
"pay back" one who wrongs them. But the larger control 
of the group over its members, or the control exercised by 
one higher in authority over one below him, should be above 
such motives and practises. 

Deterrent, or protective, punishment. — Much of the 
punishment inflicted by society upon its criminal members 
is for the purpose of deterring others from committing like 
offenses. No doubt many a person who is to-day living a 
reasonably moral life owes his allegiance to right paths to 
the fact that he fears to stray into forbidden ways because 
he knows punishment awaits him at the end of such a 
course. Thus society protects itself. 

Yet we must say that no person should be punished just 
that potential wrongdoers may have a lesson. The indi- 
vidual himself is the first concern. To inflict unjust or un- 
wise punishment on a pupil that the school may be warned 
is to wrong the one punished, and injustice never in the 
end teaches a lesson for good. Let the school learn its les- 
son from the punishment of offenders, but make sure that 
the offenders themselves are reformed by punishments that 
are just and suitable. 

Educative, or reformatory, punishments. — The ideal of 
all punishment or correction is to enable the one punished 
to rise above the need for this kind of control. This is to 
say that all punishment should in the end be educative. It 
should result in a decreasing necessity for punishment. To 
do this it must develop in the child the power and will to 
govern his own conduct aright. 

Punishment to be educative should as far as possible grow 
out of the wrong act as a natural result. This is but letting 
the deed return to the doer, and children can not learn too 
early that what one sows he later must expect to reap. Nor 



372 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

will the child fail to see the justice of such punishment and 
profit by it. 

The following incident illustrates the application of the 
educative principle of punishment: Frank was making 
ready to fill his ink-well from a larger bottle. The teacher 
suggested that he hold the two over the sink during the op- 
eration so that he might not endanger the new floor. Frank 
answered, "Oh ! I can fill it without spilling a drop." But 
alas! a great splash stained the floor. The teacher was at 
Frank's side in a moment, all sympathy and kindness. She 
helped him clean up what they could, and offered no word 
of reproach. When they had finished their task a great 
black blot still remained. The teacher then said, "Frank, 
I think it will take a good mechanic to remove that stain. 
Suppose you stop in at Mr. Johnson's shop on your way 
home and ask him to come and do the work. Also find out 
what he will charge, and arrange for the payment." "Must 
/ pay him?" asked Frank. "Why, who should pay him, if 
not you?" asked the teacher. "I'm afraid it will take all 
the money I've been saving for new skates," wailed Frank. 
"I'm very sorry," comforted the teacher, "but of course 
people must pay for damage they do to the property of 
others." So Frank paid for the job, and received one of the 
most valuable lessons a boy can learn — that the deed comes 
back to the doer. 

It will not always be possible of course to make the pen- 
alty so accurately fit the act as in the case above. But the 
teacher who believes in making punishment educative will 
find many ways of allowing the punishment to consist of 
making good the damage, or making it impossible for fur- 
ther damage to occur. Noisy whisperers or unduly mischie- 
vous culprits should not "stay in at recess"; they should 
study in a separate room or distant corner by themselves un- 
til they are willing to become true members of their group. 



CLASS-ROOM MANAGEMENT AND MORAL CONDUCT 373 

The lazy or inattentive child may have to stay after school 
to do his work. The careless child must repeat the poorly 
done lesson. The quarrelsome child may not be allowed 
to mingle with the others until he is willing to keep the 
peace. The child who uses impure speech may be denied 
associations with others until he is willing to reform. 

Corporal punishment. — Shall corporal punishment be 
inflicted? Many teachers will unhesitatingly say no. Many 
school boards have wholly prohibited corporal punishment 
in their schools. The writer will not defend corporal pun- 
ishment. Yet he does not believe that it should be wholly 
prohibited (and the fact advertised) in the school any more 
than in the home. The fact that a whipping might follow 
some contemplated wrong act has kept more than one boy 
from its performance. 

Corporal punishment, if used at all, should come only 
as a last resort. To whip a boy for swearing, for lying, 
for stealing, will hardly reform him. Reformation in these 
deeply moral lines must arise from inner impulses, stimu- 
lated and encouraged by the wise tact and appeal of the 
teacher. Whipping for rebellion or disobedience should not 
be resorted to until more natural educative punishments 
have been tried. When corporal punishment is used, it 
should be sharp and severe enough that there will be no de- 
sire to have it repeated. 

Delayed punishments. — Some teachers advocate de- 
laying punishment until the child has had time to consider 
the offense. This should not be carried too far, however. 
Many children are rendered so miserable by the worry 
over delayed punishment that they actually become ill. 
Probably only in cases of anger or stubborn rebellion is 
much to be gained by delay. 

Children should come to know that real offenses will 
surely be followed by punishment; that this punishment 



374 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

will be serious; that it will be just without fear or favor; 
that it will probably grow out of the offense and seek to 
compensate for it ; that the teacher will be their friend while 
punishing, but that he will punish if necessary. 

Incentives 

Professor James tells us that few men ever exert their 
full powers or use all the ability they possess. He speaks 
of "deeper levels" of power which it is our business as 
teachers to tap and set at work. To do this, we must use 
adequate incentives for the calling forth of effort and en- 
thusiasm. 

Competition as an incentive. — From childhood to old 
age every person responds to the impulse to "beat" some 
one else, whether it be in work, in play or in position and 
honors. Contrariwise, no one likes to be beaten, and we 
often find it easier to excel when we are "paced" by able 
competitors. These facts suggest the possibility of em- 
ploying the competitive impulse as a class-room incentive. 
It has been suggested earlier in the text how competitive 
games and exercises can be used to advantage in various 
studies. 

Competition should, however, be dual in its nature: not 
only should each pupil have an opportunity to compete 
with his neighbor, but also with his own record. The child 
who makes the largest percentage of improvement is more 
deserving of praise than the one who simply comes out 
ahead. For coming out ahead may only mean that the 
child springs from unusually good ancestry, and has not 
needed greatly to exert his native powers. But to show 
continuous improvement usually requires intelligent and 
earnest effort. 

The giving of prizes. — The giving of prizes is fol- 



CLASS-ROOM MANAGEMENT AND MORAL CONDUCT 375 

lowed less to-day than in former years, but is still largely 
in use in many schools. There are three grave objections 
to the giving of prizes to individuals: (1) the offer of 
the prize usually does not stimulate any considerable num- 
ber to compete for it; (2) it usually turns out to be a prize 
for good hereditary ability instead of for personal effort; 
(3) it furnishes rather a low motive for effort and achieve- 
ment. 

A better type of prize is that offered by a small western 
school on the following plan : If the teacher is able at the 
end of the month to report a certain high grade of work 
and conduct for her room, the children and the teacher 
have the last afternoon of the month for a special holiday, 
with picnics, excursions and good times in general. But 
all must be up, and each is commissioned not only to see 
to his own record, but also to look out for any delinquent 
classmate who may seem to need assistance or warning. 
This is the best of training, for it cultivates a sense of per- 
sonal and social responsibility among the children. It also 
brings a powerful public sentiment to bear on every child. 
No one dares fail, for it would bring down the reproach 
and wrath of the whole school on him. This is a joint 
prize that all may help win. And it proves a fine incentive 
■with nothing of the selfish about it. 

The Management of Examinations 

The management of examinations constitutes an impor- 
tant problem, even in the elementary school. 

The purpose of examinations. — Much harm has been 
done in elementary schools by treating examinations for 
grade children on so nearly the same basis as for pupils 
in the high school or college. That is to say that the ex- 
aminations are used too much as a means of determining 



376 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT / "-., 

"passing" and promotion, and too little as an instrument for 
teaching and learning. 

Children of all stages above the lowest grades need to 
be "examined" in the sense of being required now and then 
to organize what they have learned, and to test what they 
know and can do. The results of these examinations may 
be used to help the teacher decide concerning grade marks 
and promotions. But this is, for the grades at least, in- 
cidental and should not be allowed to interfere with the 
broader purpose of the examination. No teacher needs to 
give her pupils a formal examination to decide whether they 
are able to do the next higher work. Her best judgment on 
this point develops from her daily contact with the children 
in their classes. But every teacher can to great advantage 
employ the examination as a teaching device to compel care- 
ful reviewing and organizing of material. 

For these reasons examinations in the elementary school 
should come at convenient stages in the progress of a study, 
and not at stated intervals. The time to organize, review 
and fix a section of study is at its completion, and not when 
the calendar happens to show a certain date. True, a later 
examination may again give occasion to review and re-fix 
important material examined upon when the topic is com- 
pleted, but the stated examination date more often hinders 
than helps in arranging the best time schedule. In most 
subjects the examinations should probably come every four 
to eight weeks, depending on the completion of sections of 
the work. 

Exemption from examinations. — The custom is fol- 
lowed in so many schools of allowing those who reach a 
certain high daily average to be excused from examination 
that it seems ungracious to criticize it. Yet this practise 
has much to condemn it. First of all it classifies the ex- 



CLASS-ROOM MANAGEMENT AND MORAL CONDUCT 377 

animation as a penalty, whereas it ought to be looked upon 
as a legitimate and necessary part of the school work. 
Again, many children who possess a certain brightness and 
quickness, but who do not thoroughly understand or easily 
retain what they learn, may secure high daily marks and 
so escape the examination. But children of this type are 
the very ones who most need the review and reorganizing 
of material which comes from being examined. They 
should not be deprived of the best part of the work to be 
done upon their subjects. Far better reward those who 
have reached a certain grade in their studies, including the 
examinations, by giving them a holiday or excursion. 

Examinations and worry. — Examinations are used by 
some teachers as a kind of whip over the pupils in order to 
hold them up to their work. A child comes to class with the 
lesson unprepared, or he fails in some exercise of the reci- 
tation, and the teacher says, "Remember there is an exam- 
ination coming !" Now this would be all right for the sloth- 
ful and over-placid child. But he is not the one such a 
threat stirs. The response to the threat comes from the 
highly sensitive, timid or nervous child who has the ten- 
dency to worry. Why can we not get away from the tra- 
ditional view of examinations, take the unnecessary dread 
and fear out of them, and treat them on a common-sense 
and rational basis ? Then we shall use them not as penalties 
but as opportunities. 

Grading, and utilizing examination marks. — Examina- 
tion papers should be carefully graded and the papers re- 
turned. The curiosity to know one's grade is natural, and 
this curiosity should be utilized. The examination should 
supply the basis for a recitation following the return of 
the papers, and every question be fully discussed, its an- 
swers reviewed and errors and misunderstandings removed. 



378 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Not to do this is to lose one of the best effects of the ex- 
amination. The plan followed in many schools of giving 
back only the grades, or giving the papers back only to have 
them thrown at once into the waste-basket without review, 
is unpardonable waste of opportunity. 

On the whole, teachers probably grade their examination 
papers too high. There is also a tendency not to make 
difference enough between the grades of the poorest and 
the best pupils. 

Examinations and honesty.— Our examination system 
undoubtedly has much to answer for in undermining the 
honesty of pupils. In some schools the examination periods 
are a battle of wits between the teacher, who is seeking to 
prevent dishonesty, and certain pupils, who are seeking to 
secure credit to which they are not entitled. It is not meant 
that all children are dishonest in their examinations. But 
enough are to make the problem involved constitute one 
of the gravest moral questions in our present school ad- 
ministration. No child can grow up through a system where 
he constantly sees or practises small evasions, bright tricks 
and petty thefts without having his conscience in some de- 
gree weakened and his moral sense dulled. The moral 
qualities of the class room carry over to matters outside 
the school. 

The teacher can guard the honesty of pupils in examina- 
tions in at least three different ways : ( 1 ) He can remove 
unnecessary temptations by so arranging that pupils sitting 
adjacent to one another are not writing on the same ques- 
tions. He can maintain such oversight (without spying) 
that the grosser forms of cheating can not be practised. 
This can all be done without casting reflections on the hon- 
esty of the pupils, the explanation being given that the 
arrangements are for the purpose of making it easy to be 



CLASS-ROOM MANAGEMENT AND MORAL CONDUCT 379 

honest and fair. (2) The teacher can appeal to the hon- 
esty, loyalty and better nature of his pupils. This may not 
secure response from all, but will form a very large pro- 
portion if the appeal is tactfully made. (3) The teacher 
can provide questions and exercises of such nature for the 
examination that opportunities to use surreptitious mate- 
rial are largely eliminated. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Try making a list of ten leading qualities of character, as 
honesty, loyalty, etc. Then estimate the degree to which these are 
being cultivated in your class room. 

2. Think over the misdemeanors that have been most annoying 
in your school. Under which of the two classes mentioned in the 
chapter do most of them come? Is the distinction clear in the minds 
of your pupils? 

3. Should the confession of a wrong deed lessen the punish- 
ment? Do you try for confessions, rather than to start with accusa- 
tions? Have you tried making the school feel responsibility for 
misdeeds of offenders among their number? Do you think this will 
work if the spirit of the school is not good? 

4. Try making a list of the different school incentives you are 
employing. Of others that might well be used. Do you see a way 
by which you might offer a "universal" prize as an incentive? 

5. Do you make your examinations serve as an instrument for 
teaching and learning, or chiefly as a basis for promotions? Do 
your examinations lead to cheating? Do you make good use of the 
answers written by the pupils as the basis for further instruction? 
Do you make the questions so that they will require a review of 
the important things rather than small technicalities? Do your 
pupils dread the examinations? 

REFERENCES 

Dewey, The MotgX Principle in Education. Houghton Mifflin 
Co., New York. 

Sisson, The Essentials of Character. Macmillan Co., New York. 



380 CLASS-ROOM METHOD AND MANAGEMENT 

Harrison, When Children Err. National Kindergarten College, 
Chicago. 

King (and others), Education and National Character. Re- 
ligious Education Association, Chicago. 

Du Bois, The Culture of Justice. Dodd, Mead and Co., New 
York. 

Schoff, The Wayward Child. Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis. 

Healy, Honesty. Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis. 



THE END 



INDEX 



INDEX 

Agriculture : aims of, 318 ; chapter on, 318 ; club work in, 332 ; dem- 
onstrations in, 329; home projects in, 328; play contests in, 
330; seasonal arrangement of, 327; subject-matter of, 321. 

Aim, The : in agriculture, 318 ; in arithmetic, 217 ; in civics, 277 ; the 
disciplinary, 81 ; determining the educational, 24 ; in geog- 
raphy, 240 ; in history, 260 ; in home economics, 335 ; as related 
to instruction, 24; in language, 188; determining the material, 
21, 23; as a factor in method, 20; in penmanship, 308; in 
physiology, 290; sought in reading, 132; in spelling, 165; and 
the point of view, 10. 

Appreciations : cultivation of, 64 ; and culture, 26. 

Arithmetic : aims of, 217 ; chapter on, 217 ; Courtis tests in, 221 ; in- 
ductive method in, 234; obsolete material in, 230; subject- 
matter of, 224 ; suggestions for teaching, 236. 

Attitudes : trained through agriculture, 319 ; trained through arith- 
metic, 217; chapter on, 51; trained through civics, 279; as aim 
in education, 30, 52 ; trained through geography, 241 ; trained 
through history, 261 ; trained through home economics, 336 ; 
trained through language, 189; trained through physiology, 
291 ; developed through reading, 134 ; trained through spelling, 
166; and standards of value, 52. 

Avocations, knowledge of, 47. 

Ayres : penmanship scale, 312 ; spelling test, 168. 

Books : for the library, 147, 150 ; logical vs. psychological text, 102 ; 
text in spelling, 165 ; for the teacher, 156. 

Civics : aim of, 277 ; attitudes trained through, 279 ; chapter on, 277 ; 

subject-matter, 280. 
Culture : the newer definition of, 26 ; and utility, 27. 
Curriculum, The: and its organization, 107; the overcrowded, 84; 

present reconstruction of, 85. 

Discipline, as end in education, 79. 

Dramatization : in history, 272 ; in language, 200 ; in physiology, 305 ; 
in teaching reading, 159. 

Education : aim of and material, 23 ; place of attitudes in, 52 ; as 
affecting changes, 12; two factors in, 11; place of knowledge 
in, 35; fundamental requirements of, 28; and skills, 67; and 
subject-matter, 79. 

383 



384 INDEX 

Elimination: in agriculture, 326; in arithmetic, 230; in civics, 285; 
in geography, 252; in grammar, 211; in history, 270; in physi- 
ology, 298; in spelling, 169, 177. 

Examinations : and class-room honesty, 378 ; and class-room man- 
agement, 375 ; utilization of, 377. 

Fundamentals, in the curriculum, 37. 

Games and plays: in teaching language, 197; in teaching reading, 

142. 
Geography: aims of, 240; chapter on, 239; subject-matter in, 245. 
Grammar: in language instruction, 196; obsolete material in, 211; 

subject-matter of, 209. 
Growth, as aim in education, 55. 

Habits : curing bad reading, 158 ; formed in the school, 63 ; impor- 
tance of, 63. 

Happiness, as aim in education, 53. 

History: aims of, 260; chapter on, 260; knowledge of, 42; subject- 
matter of, 263. 

Home economics : aim of, 335 ; chapter on, 335 ; equipment for, 343 ; 
laboratory work in, 343. 

Imagination: in teaching geography, 257; in teaching history, 272; 

in teaching reading, 160. 
Instruction: as related to aim, 24; chapter on, 113; danger points in, 

128; personality a factor in, 114; technique of, 113, 116. 
Interests : cultivation of, 57 ; types of, 58. 

Jones: and the spelling "demons," 176; and material of spelling, 
169, 180. 

Knowledge: as an aim in education, 28; of avocations, 47; chapter 
on, 35 ; of expression, 46 ; of history, 44 ; of human nature, 41 ; 
of physical nature, 40 ; fundamental requirements of, 35 ; of 
the self, 38 ; of social institutions, 42 ; of symbols, 37 ; of voca- 
tions, 45 ; of most worth, 29. 

Language: aims of, 188; chapter on, 188; common errors in, 195; 

material for instruction in, 192. 
Library, The : list of books for, 147, 150, 153 ; and teaching reading, 

147. 

Management, Class-Room: chapter on, 349; and moral conduct, 
364 ; and examinations, 375 ; and incentives, 374 ; measures of 
good, 349 ; the personal factor in, 355 ; and physical conditions, 
360; punishment of misdemeanors in, 369; pupil control in, 
351 ; and routine, 358 ; the spirit of, 352. 

Memory, use of in reading, 162. 



INDEX 3&5 

Method : and educational aim, 10 ; concept of, 7 ; factors in, 19 ; im- 
portance of, 1 ; the laboratory, 124 ; logical and psychological, 
8; nature of, 19; and organization, 100; the question-and- 
answer, 120; not standardized, 2, 4; the supplement, 122; and 
the teacher, 6; the topical, 122. 

Moral nature, The : cultivation of, 61 ; and the school, 62. 

Nature : knowledge of human, 41 ; knowledge of physical, 40. 
Neglect, and stress in subject-matter, 97. 

Organization: and curriculum, 107; logical, 101, 110; as related to 
method, 100; of subject-matter, 100. 

Penmanship : aim of, 308; Ayres scale in, 312; chapter on, 308. 

Personality, and instruction, 114. 

Physiology: aim of, 290; chapter on, 290; subject-matter in, 293. 

Pictures : use of in geography, 248 ; as history material, 264 ; as lan- 
guage material, 194. 

Presentation : methods employed in, 120 ; requisites of good, 125. 

Principle: for selecting subject-matter, 86; for organizing subject- 
matter, 100; of text-book selection, 96. 

Punishment: delayed, 373; of misdemeanors, 369; types of, 370. 

Question-and-answer method, 120. _ 

Reading: aims of, 132; chapter on, 132; material for different 
grades, 139; mechanics of, 142, 145, 147, 151; oral and silent, 
161 ; tests of skill in, 136. 

Recitation : danger points in, 128 ; inattention in, 126 ; the socialized, 
214; standards of, 127; tests of, 125. 

Skills: trained through agriculture, 320; as aim in education, 32; 
trained through arithmetic, 220; chapter on, 67; trained 
through civics, 279; as an end in education, 67; trained 
through geography, 243; trained through history, 262; 
trained through home economics, 337; trained in language, 
190; mental, 73; moral, 75; trained through penmanship, 311; 
trained through physiology, 292 ; physical, 71 ; trained through 
reading, 135; social, 74; trained in spelling, 167; training 
for, 69. 

Spelling : aim sought in, 165 ; the Ayres test, 168 ; chapter on, 165 ; 
column and context, 184; obsolete material in, 169, 177; oral 
and written, 184 ; rules, 185 ; the teaching of, 179 ; teaching 
new words, 182. 

Stories: as history material, 266; as language material, 197, 199, 
202 ; for memorizing, 141, 144, 146, 150, 153 ; and teaching of 
reading, 141. 



386 INDEX 

Subject-Matter : in agriculture, 321 ; in arithmetic, 224 ; chapter on, 
79; in civics, 280; determined by aim, 21, 23, 86; function of, 
12, 13 ; in geography, 245 ; in grammar, 209 ; in history, 263 ; 
! in home economics, 337; rapid increase of, 83; for language 

instruction, 192 ; logical organization of, 101 ; organization of, 
100; in penmanship, 309; in physiology, 293; present readjust- 
ment of, 79 ; principles for selecting, 96 ; psychological organi- 
zation of, 105; for reading, 139; for spelling, 169. 

Superintendent, The, and method, 6. 

Tastes : and appreciation, 64 ; cultivation of, 64. 

^Teacher, The: list of books for, 156; and his equipment, 115; evolv- 
ing from student, 14; and method, 6; and his personality, 114; 
and text-book, 96. 

Tests, Standardized : Ayres penmanship scale, 311 ; Ayres spelling 
scale, 168; Courtis arithmetic, 221; Kansas silent reading, 136; 
Thorndike penmanship scale, 311. 

Utility, and culture, 27. 

Values, standards of, 52. 

Vocabulary, expanding the child's, 212. 

Vocations, knowledge, 45. 



